Green Crime in Mexico

A Collection of Case Studies

Ines Arroyo-Quiroz, Tanya Wyatt, Ines Arroyo-Quiroz, Tanya Wyatt

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN:
  9783319752853
• eBook ISBN:
  9783319752860
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Geography
• Index: Geography

This collection is the first exploration into green crime in Mexico, offering a unique critique of the environmental problems facing Mexico today. Written by a diverse range of Mexican academics and practitioners from different career stages and various different disciplines, this edited volume exposes the corruption, power, and disregard for the environment through highly detailed and engaging case studies. The chapters are grouped into four categories: Environmental Degradation, Social and Environmental Justice, Wildlife Trafficking, and Non-compliance with Environmental Obligations, and are illuminated by rigorous original research. This book fills a substantial gap in knowledge about concerns that are important not only to the Mexican people and the wider region, but to anyone with an interest in the environmental issues facing the world today. To this end, the contributors hope to inspire other Mexicans to study and research green crimes as well as to influence scholars and practitioners across Central and South America who are facing similar environmental crises and challenges.

© The Author(s) 2018

Ines Arroyo-Quiroz and Tanya Wyatt (eds.)Green Crime in MexicoPalgrave Studies in Green Criminologyhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75286-0_1

Begin Abstract

1. Green Harms and Crimes in Mexico

Tanya Wyatt¹ and Ines Arroyo-Quiroz²

(1)

Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK

(2)

Centro Regional de Investigaciones Multidisciplinarias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Mexico

Tanya Wyatt (Corresponding author)

Ines Arroyo-Quiroz

End Abstract

Introduction

Environmental degradation and destruction is a problem around the globe. However, as in the discussions and research fora of other global and societal challenges, there is a tendency in the global environmental forum at times to hear only some voices. Wider public awareness of environmental degradation often seems focused on certain spaces (i.e. rainforests) and species (elephants). This is the case with environmental or green crimes and harms in Mexico. The government of Mexico recognises that lack of clean water and deforestation are causes for concern, going so far as to label them national security issues (CIA 2017). The lack of clean water stems from a scarcity of freshwater resources as well as pollution of freshwater, particularly in the north (CIA 2017). In the centre and in the south of the country, the water is inaccessible and of poor quality. Therefore, even though around 96 per cent of the population have a drinking water source, this water may not be safe. Just over 85 per cent have sanitation facilities (CIA 2017). Water pollution comes from raw sewage and industrial waste, which particularly affects rivers in urban areas. The urban areas along the US-Mexico border suffer serious water and air pollution , as does Mexico City. Water scarcity derives from depletion of the groundwater, as will be discussed in Chap. 2, and has further negative consequences by contributing to land sinking and caving in (CIA 2017). Further environmental harm comes from the scarcity of hazardous waste disposal facilities (CIA 2017).

There are nearly 125 million people in Mexico, making it the 15th most populous country in the world (CIA 2017). As in many other countries, people are migrating from rural areas to urban centres, adding additional pressure in terms of space, need for resources, and pollution of these areas. In part, Mexicans are leaving rural areas because of deteriorating agricultural lands, but rural areas are also facing desertification and deforestation , the latter of which is linked to widespread erosion (CIA 2017). Mexico not only has to contend with the implications of the internal migration of its own citizens, but also has to cope with thousands of poor Guatemalans and other Central Americans (CIA 2017). They cross the southern Mexican border to look for work in Mexico or continue through to the United States .

In addition to population pressure, economic factors also impact upon the environment. It is relevant and important to detail that 46 per cent of Mexicans are living below the poverty line (CIA 2017). While there is fairly low unemployment at just above four per cent, what is concerning is that underemployment possibly affects around 25 per cent of the population (CIA 2017). In addition to high underemployment, real wages are low, there is significant income inequality , and the large indigenous population in the southern states have limited social and economic mobility (CIA 2017). Mexico was hit hard by the economic crisis in 2008, though some growth returned in 2010. The main industries in Mexico are food and beverages, tobacco, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum , mining , textiles, clothing, motor vehicles, consumer durables, and tourism (CIA 2017), all of which can degrade and damage the environment. Mexico also seems to be highly reliant on fossil fuels with only 4.7 per cent of electricity coming from renewables (CIA 2017).

Unfortunately, as the chapters in this edited collection will demonstrate environmental crimes and harms, while serious, are largely overlooked. This is partly due to the fact that globally Mexico is one of the major drug -producing and transit countries (CIA 2017). A range of illicit drugs are grown, manufactured, or shipped through Mexico. It is the largest exporter of marijuana and methamphetamine to the US market, a producer and distributor of ecstasy, a stopover point for 95 per cent of the cocaine heading to the US from South America, and probably the world’s third largest producer of opium (CIA 2017). Not surprisingly then, the Mexican government possibly has the largest independent illicit-crop eradication program in the world (CIA 2017); this also has negative environmental consequences (del Olmo 1998). With tens of thousands of homicides related to the illicit drug trade, Mexico has been focused on tackling drugs and the associated corruption and violence . The murders and violence are linked to the fact that drug trafficking is orchestrated by powerful cartels which challenge the rule of law and fuel other criminal offences as well, such as money laundering . Drug trafficking and violence eclipse many other problems in Mexico such as green crimes , poverty , and inequality .

Background

Grounded in this complex social and environmental backdrop, in 2014 we (the editors) applied to the British Academy for a Newton Advanced Fellowship. Newton funds are only available to nationals from particular countries, which the British government has targeted for programmes to increase research and leadership capacity. We were fortunate that Mexico was one of these countries, and in 2015 we were awarded this funding. Our winning proposal was to investigate the legal and illegal wildlife trade between Mexico and the European Union (EU). We proposed this research because of our mutual interest in wildlife trade, but also because existing research and concern related to wildlife trade and trafficking largely ignored Mexico and the EU . Yet, Mexico is a megadiverse country, and having such numerous endemic species has proven in other contexts to result in increased consumer demand for rarer wildlife species. However, the global discourse on wildlife trade and trafficking is largely focused on the demand for charismatic megafauna in Africa destined for Asia (i.e., elephant ivory and rhinoceros horn). Furthermore, experts have indicated that the EU , along with the United States , is one of the main consumer markets for both legal and illegal wildlife, but again the global discourse is narrow, focusing mainly on China or Southeast Asia (McMurray 2008).

We also know from our experiences that in Mexico, in particular, limited research about wildlife trade and trafficking has taken place (Arroyo and Wyatt, Forthcoming, 2018). When such research has happened, biologists and conservationists have conducted research about the ecological dimensions relating to a few key species—not social scientists trying to understand why this happens and what solutions can be put in place. So whilst increasing the knowledge about wildlife trade and trafficking by exploring the unique aspects of trade between the EU and Mexico, we also sought to provide original research regarding the green criminological aspects of legal and illegal wildlife trade. Our methodology consisted of the collection of legal and illegal trade data from the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) database managed by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), from the Mexican Attorney General Office of Environmental Protection (PROFEPA) , and from the European Union Trade in Wildlife Information eXchange (EU-TWIX). We also conducted semi-structured interviews with Mexican and EU authorities and experts. The latter brings us to the evolution of this book.

In our discussions with authorities and stakeholders in different areas of Mexico (and from our personal knowledge), it was apparent green criminology was unknown in Mexico. Yet, clearly there was a hunger for knowledge about environmental crimes and harms, including what they are, what to do about them, how to manage the tension between harm and crime, how other countries experience green crime and harm, their strategies to prevent them, and so forth. This led us to arrange a green criminology short course in June 2016 for our interviewees as well as advertising on open invitation to apply for spaces to participate. The culmination was a five-day, 25-hour intensive class detailing what green criminology is, its eco-philosophical underpinnings, associated environmental legislation and laws, strategies of enforcement and prevention, and interactive sessions as to the state of green crime and harm in Mexico. Fourteen of the 18 people who attended have written chapters for this collection. They are a mixture of undergraduate and postgraduate students, third-sector staff, and practitioners from law enforcement and government agencies.

The discussions during the course explored theories explaining green crimes and the different perspectives about what is and is not criminal in the variations of green criminology . Participants then applied this information to their personal experiences of green crimes and harms in Mexico. One of these discussions concerned the main environmental harm that was most negatively impacting Mexico’s environment as well as its people. Whilst course participants recognised the issues detailed above (pollution and deforestation ), they expressed concern that other environmental harms were more or equally pressing. The environmental harm most frequently proposed was that of change of land use , which was associated with an incompatibly between what the politicians had planned and what the public wanted. Similarly, one participant suggested the main environmental problem for Mexico is the degradation of Mexican natural heritage.

Related to environmental degradation due to changes in land use is the belief that in Mexico, in general, there is a lack of motivation and information on how to use resources sustainably by both the authorities and the wider society....

Table of contents

• Cover
• Front Matter
• 1. Green Harms and Crimes in Mexico
• Part I. Environmental Degradation
• Part II. Social and Environmental Justice
• Part III. Wildlife Trade
• Part IV. Non-compliance with Environmental Obligations
• Back Matter