1.1 Introduction
The intentional killing of a child prompts reactions of shock and horror from most members of society, a situation that is greatly exacerbated when the accused is the child’s father or mother. In Westernized societies, the majority of child homicide victims are killed by their parents, stepparent, or guardian, acts broadly referred to as filicide (Dixon, Krienert, & Walsh, 2013). The true rate of filicide remains unknown because it is assumed that many filicide perpetrators successfully conceal their crimes (Koenen & Thompson, 2008). There is no standard definition of filicide, and studies often focus on types of filicide separately using different sample parameters. When studies focus on filicides more generally, varying age groups are used to identify the sample. For these reasons, comparisons across studies can be difficult, and findings often appear contradictory.
It is recognized that at least half of filicidal acts are committed by fathers, even though the majority of studies have focused on maternal filicide (West, Hatters Friedman, & Resnick, 2009). Few studies have systematically compared the similarities and differences in cases involving mothers and fathers who kill their children, but recent work in Australia (Eriksson, Mazerolle, Wortley, & Johnson, 2014), the Netherlands (Liem & Koenraadt, 2008), and the United States (Dixon et al., 2013) have begun to address this gap. Commonly found differences in the commission of and motivations for filicide by mothers and fathers may be important in the development of appropriate prevention strategies. To build on this growing body of international research, the aim of this study is to compare trends and patterns in filicide cases by gender of the accused that occurred in Canada over more than half a century.
1.2 Prior Research on Gender and Filicide
According to many community samples and aggregate crime data, mothers and fathers have been shown to commit filicide at almost the same rate, making it one of the few crimes that women commit as often as men (Adelson, 1961; Fox & Zawitz, 2007; Kunz & Bahr, 1996; Mariano, Chan Choon, & Myers, 2014; Marleau, Poulin, Webanck, Roy, & Laporte, 1999). Some recent comprehensive reviews (Bourget, Grace, & Whitehurst, 2007; Harris et al.; Koenen & Thompson, 2008; Porter & Gavin, 2010; West et al., 2009), and some recent empirical research (Dixon et al., 2013; Leveillee, Marleau, & Dubé, 2007; Liem & Koenraadt, 2008; Putkonen et al., 2011) have begun to examine whether mothers and fathers kill their children in the same way and for the same reasons. Findings have been contradictory because of the varying samples examined (Bourget & Bradford, 1990; Bourget & Gagne, 2007; Dawson & Lanagan, 1994; Flynn, Shaw, & Abel, 2007; Marks & Kumar, 1993), but some consistent patterns have been documented.
1.2.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Filicide Accused and Their Victims
1.2.1.1 Perpetrators
The majority of research has shown that fathers who kill their children are older (Bourget et al., 2007; Dixon et al., 2013; Koenen & Thompson, 2008; Liem & Koenraadt, 2008), more likely to be employed (Putkonen et al., 2011), and more likely to have a criminal record (Harris, Hilton, Rice, & Eke, 2007; Koenen & Thompson, 2008; Marks & Kumar, 1993; Putkonen et al., 2011) than mothers. Most studies show that single mothers are more at risk of perpetrating filicide than single fathers (Koenen & Thompson, 2008). Biological parents are the most common filicidal perpetrator (Mariano et al., 2014).
1.2.1.2 Victims
The majority of research has found an even distribution of female and male filicide victims (Bouget & Gagne, 2007; Dixon et al., 2013; Flynn et al., 2007; Kunz & Bahr, 1996; Laporte, Tzoumakis, Marleau, & Allaire, 2005; West et al., 2009). However, findings are contradictory as to whether or not the victim’s sex varies by gender of accused (Bourget et al., 2007; Mariano et al., 2014; Dawson & Langan, 1994). Overall filicide risk declines as children age (Koenen & Thompson, 2008). The presence of risk factors has been examined, but more attention needs to focus on the combinations of risk factors that may be more lethal and on whether these combinations vary by gender of the accused.
1.2.2 Situational Characteristics in Filicide
Research shows that fathers are more likely to stab, squeeze, or beat their children to death, whereas mothers are more likely to drown, suffocate, or gas their victims (Koenen & Thompson, 2008; Putkonen et al., 2011). Substance abuse has been found to be more common among filicidal men than women (Eriksson et al., 2014; Harris et al., 2007; Putkonen et al., 2011). Findings are contradictory with respect to suicide as an outcome for filicidal offenders; some studies have shown that fathers are less likely to commit suicide than mothers, but others show that fathers are more likely to commit suicide after the filicide (Bourget et al., 2007; Cooper & Eaves, 1996; Daly & Wilson, 1988). Finally, the majority of research demonstrates that men are more likely to kill additional victims in cases of filicide, primarily their spouse and/or other children, whereas...