The proposed edited book critically examines the interpretation and praxis of diversity and inclusion and the related issues that affect minority groups in North America. Diversity and inclusion may appear compatible notions in some contexts but are incompatible in others. Thus, it becomes crucial to clarify issues around these constructs in migration spaces and in their relation to policies of multiculturalism. Contemporary debates about social and political integration are strongly influenced by the literature on social capital. According to Putnam (2000), social capital refers to âsocial networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from themâ (p. 19). Putnam (2007) concludes that ethnic diversity correlates with low social capital. In ethnically diverse neighborhoods, residents of all ethnicities tend to âhunker downâ. The inhabitants have less trust and fewer networks and participate less in voluntary organizations. According to Putnam, however, the negative effect of diversity on social capital should be expected to be temporary. âIn the long run societies have overcome such fragmentation by creating new compassing identities that dampen the negative effects of diversityâ (pp. 138â139). The literature on social capital has also stimulated research on the social and political integration of immigrants. Putnam (2000) makes a distinction between âbondingâ and âbridgingâ organizations. Bonding social capital is made up of social ties between people who are similar along important dimensions; such capital works to strengthen exclusive identities and homogenous group constellations, and may in its extreme be harmful to society. Bridging capital, on the other hand, is constituted by ties across social distinctions, between people who are different from one another.
Reports and literature indicate policies on diversity have not been effective in the integration of newcomers into the mainstream society (Mulholland & Biles, 2004). For example, in the area of employment, the report published by the government of Canada, Survival to Success: Transforming Immigrants Outcome, stated employment procedures for immigrants âsimply doesnât work well enough, seamlessly enough, or quickly enough. Our challenge is to transition those immigrants who are in Canada from survival jobs to jobs where they can best use their skills and experience and to ensure future immigrants get jobs commensurate with their skills and experienceâ.
Canada introduced the concept of multiculturalism during Trudeauâs era in 1971. Canada was the first country in the world to adopt multiculturalism as an official policy. By so doing, Canada affirmed the value and dignity of all Canadian citizens regardless of their racial or ethnic origins, their language, or their religious affiliation. The 1971 multiculturalism policy of Canada also confirmed the rights of Aboriginal peoples and the status of Canadaâs two official languages.
In this book, we attempt analyses and reanalyses of the North American experience in the hope that we can inform policies and perspectives in other parts of the world. Multiculturalism has as one of its tenets the encouragement of racial and ethnic harmony and cross-cultural understanding. We do so by examining various models focusing on issues of diversity and inclusion.
One of the themes examined is on employment. Immigrants have varying perceptions on integration and securing jobs. Many new immigrants are highly educated and experienced professionals, but struggle to find jobs in their community, while local employers are challenged to recruit employees from immigrant groups. Among many reasons ascribed to this labor market mismatch are cultural issues. Using social capital theory and cultural capital theory, it is obvious that immigrants and refugees are at a disadvantage when it comes to job seeking and employment. They do not have the networks and resources that can positively influence their economic and social status. We observe that inclusion to education is an elusive concept. Studies on refugees from Africa, Asia, and other parts of the world to Canada highlight policy issues on integration and mental health of both parents and children within the education system in Canada (Stewart et al., 2014, 2017, 2018). Refugee children coming from a camp face tremendous challenges when being assessed for education levels in Canada. There is a mismatch between chronological age and mental age. Parental support is often limited because of the need to hold two or more jobs to augment household income. They have to grapple with learning English or French as new languages. More critical is the literacy/education levels of parents who cannot provide intellectual support at home. According to some of the social and political theorists such as Antonio Gramsci, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Pierre Bourdieu (1972), and JĂźrgen Habermas, language, culture, and politics play an important role in education and integration in society. Language is one way of maintaining a hegemony of the dominant group. Foucault and Gordon (1980) said that if we wish to think differently about, or bring about changes in education positively, the development of new teaching methodologies is mandatory, and through this methodology, power would be equally distributed among all.
Authors observe that issues of diversity and inclusion are commonly framed under a broader framework of multiculturalism. However, multiculturalism is understood and practiced differently by countries (Bengtsson, StroĚmblad, & Bay, 2010). In Canada, adopting a cultural mosaic has been the approach. All cultures theoretically are treated equally (Government of Canada, Multiculturalism Act). This was designed to ensure that all citizens keep their identities, take pride in their ancestry, and have a sense of belonging. This ideal though pragmatic is also problematic because enclaves and cultural groups have developed segregation at the same time. The ideology is based on the postmodern philosophy that humans are basically different. On the other hand, the American approach of a âmelting potâ is seen as another option to dealing with diversity and inclusion. This modernist perspective, based on the assumption that all humans are the same despite different backgrounds in history and culture, does not solve all the barriers that are attendant to multiculturalism, such as racism, prejudice, power, and certain cultures appearing as dominant. Sensoy and DiAngelo (2012) state, âI went to school with a lot of people of Color. What seems like racially diverse environment for Whites does not always appear diverse for people of Color. We often find that White people who had lots of childhood friends of Color rarely keep with them because our schools, work places, and other environments channel us in separate directionsâ (p. 124).
It is noted that the Greeks were the first to present a systematic analysis of equality as a concept. An example is the exploration of equality by Aristotle (384â322 BCE). He examined the concept of the virtue of justice in the Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle uses the Greek word for âequalâ (isos) but gives it a meaning that is more akin to âfairnessâ. Equality is a state to be striven for, intermediate between giving someone more or less than he or she is due, relative to a specific activity or social realm. In disputes over contracts, for instance, a judge must determine the differences in harms inflicted by the breaking of a contract and restore the position of equality by subtracting the profit the offender has reaped from the infraction (Ethics, 1132a1â19).
Aristotleâs discussion of political justice includes the notion of âequalityâ in a way that democratic states try to implement through policy (Aristotle, Brown & Ross, 2009). Political justice is a matter for citizens, whom he defines as âthose who share in common a life aiming at self-sufficiency, who are free and either proportionally or numerically equalâ (Ethics, 1134a27â29). Justice, in the political sense, can occur only among those who are free and fundamentally equal in their capacity as citizens, most importantly, in their equality in ruling and being ruled (Ethics, 1134b14â16).
Should modern democracies be guided by Aristotleâs standard of equality? Some would argue that equity should be the objective. Is everybody really equal (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2012)? Can they be equal, and if so in what sense? Only when you consider everyoneâs values. But as we know, these values are difficult to measure from a utilitarian perspective.
From a political and universal legislative framework, there are instruments such as Universal Declaration of Human Rights and many state laws that have been passed in the spirit of the UN Declaration in an attempt to operationalize the concepts of inclusion. However, on examination of the literature on workplaces and employment, education, and training, there are numerous examples of discrimination through race, gender, and sex. This practical reality renders most discussion on diversity and inclusion mere rhetoric.
In the last decade the number of immigrants and refugees has increased in North America, resulting in an increasingly diversified population culturally and ethnically. The way differences are viewed and reconstructed in the migration spaces affects the conditions of many immigrants and refugees socially, economically, and politically. In Canada, according to Garcea and Hibbert (2011), there are four policy frameworks that are used to manage diversity and inclusion of immigrants and minorities: multiculturalism, human rights, anti-racism, and employment equity. Across federal, provincial, and territorial governments, these four policies are almost similar in their language and practice, for example, Canada Multiculturalism Act (1988), British Columbia, Multiculturalism Act (1996), Alberta Human Rights Act (2009), Council of Intercultural Relations Act (1984) in Quebec, and Minister of Citizenship and Culture Act (1990) in Ontario. Garcea and Hibbert (2011) argue that these policy frameworks provide effective basis for the integration and inclusion of immigrants and ethnocultural minorities; however, their design and implementation need to be improved.
The scope of the book is wide in an attempt to cover such a huge and complex topic and to elicit and initiate diverse debates. The chapters focus on language and culture, race, curriculum, employment, policy, and the impact of globalization and transnationalization. Two chapters are dedicated to perspectives on Aboriginal experiences in a multicultural environment. This compilation is expected not only to contribute to a better understanding of these issues and to create a platform for a wider debate but also to be a comprehensive reference text for scholars, researchers, policymakers, and educational leaders concerned with...