Why Afterschool Matters

Ingrid A. Nelson

• Publisher: Rutgers University Press
• Year: 2016
• ISBN:
  9780813584959
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Secondary Education

Increasingly, educational researchers and policy-makers are finding that extracurricular programs make a major difference in the lives of disadvantaged youth, helping to reduce the infamous academic attainment gap between white students and their black and Latino peers. Yet studies of these programs typically focus on how they improve the average academic performance of their participants, paying little attention to individual variation.
 
Why Afterschool Matters takes a different approach, closely following ten Mexican American students who attended the same extracurricular program in California, then chronicling its long-term effects on their lives, from eighth grade to early adulthood. Discovering that participation in the program was life-changing for some students, yet had only a minimal impact on others, sociologist Ingrid A. Nelson investigates the factors behind these very different outcomes. Her research reveals that while afterschool initiatives are important, they are only one component in a complex network of school, family, community, and peer interactions that influence the educational achievement of disadvantaged students.
 
Through its detailed case studies of individual students, this book brings to life the challenges marginalized youth en route to college face when navigating the intersections of various home, school, and community spheres. Why Afterschool Matters may focus on a single program, but its findings have major implications for education policy nationwide.

1

Extracurricular Activities and Pathways to College

Born in Mexico City, Ana immigrated to the United States at the end of first grade with her mother and sister, Victoria. Ana’s father, seeking a better life for his family, had previously immigrated and established a home in Bayside, a diverse urban community thirty minutes outside a major California city. Ana spoke no English when she enrolled at Jackson Elementary School. The transition was difficult, but Ana was placed in an English Language Learner class. Her parents worked diligently to help her become a proficient student, and she loved school and made friends quickly. Outside school, she enjoyed Jackson’s afterschool program and spending time with her family.

At the beginning of sixth grade, Ana transitioned from Jackson to Adams Middle School, an eight hundred-student magnet school drawing students from across Bayside. Although her transition to middle school was somewhat scary, she had no trouble making friends and adapting to the new environment. While participating in Adams’s afterschool program during sixth and seventh grades, she relished the time to complete her homework. Ana remained a strong student and continued to draw on her family for encouragement and support.

As an eighth grader, Ana joined Students Together—a twice-weekly extracurricular program that trained young people to become civic leaders—because she enjoyed staying after school for activities and wanted to help out in her community. She really liked the program, partly because of the opportunity to be active in local affairs but primarily for the “really great people” she met through participating.

Teresa was born and raised in a mobile home park in the industrial area of Bayside. A self-described “shy and nerdy” child, she had a good experience at Harrison Elementary and participated in a variety of afterschool activities. She learned so much in school, “not only about regular school, but just being with the people.” In her down time she enjoyed playing with friends from her neighborhood, ice skating, and spending time with her family.

When Teresa transitioned to Adams Middle School as a sixth grader, academics continued to come easily, but the social aspects of school grew increasingly difficult. Her fellow students were “annoying” and “mean,” so much that she did not want to go to school at all. As often as her parents would permit, Teresa stayed home and pretended to be sick. Outside school, however, she continued to enjoy the company of her family and neighborhood friends.

As an eighth grader, Teresa joined Students Together because “it sounded like a cool program” and a “positive place to be,” and, for her, it really was. Adult staff members made her feel cared about, and Students Together became a place where she felt she belonged. Her confidence multiplied, and her college ambitions strengthened.

Maria attended preschool in Mexico before moving to the United States. Soon after arriving in California, her parents separated. Maria grew up with her mother, moving frequently between different homes, changing schools nearly every year, and subsisting below the poverty line. She witnessed her mother surviving violence and abuse at every turn. Bright but uninterested in academics, Maria had little ambition.

When Maria began at Adams Middle School her sixth-grade year, she fell in with the wrong crowd. According to Maria, “My sixth-grade year I was a little troublemaker in school. I would always be in fights with other people—girls and guys.” With each passing year, Maria crept closer to gang involvement and pregnancy. Her grades were poor, and she felt little connection to school. By the beginning of eighth grade she was on the verge of dropping out.

When she heard a presentation encouraging eighth graders to apply to Students Together, she believed the program would offer her an opportunity to make a change in her life for the better. Her older friends had moved on to high school, and she was ready to “expand herself in a different way.” The adult staff members inspired Maria, the diverse peer group taught her to see the world in new ways, and the leadership opportunities helped her discover her passion for social justice advocacy.

Research has shown that participation in organized out-of-school time activities is associated with an array of benefits, and Ana, Teresa, and Maria are examples of this trend. But how exactly do such programs influence participants’ educational trajectories? And why do programs seem to matter for some students more than others? Can the differential outcomes be traced to the preexisting attitudes and experiences of those who choose to participate, or does the act of participation contribute uniquely to students’ trajectories? By drawing on in-depth interviews with former participants in a high-quality extracurricular program at an urban California middle school, this book takes a longitudinal look at structured out-of-school time activity participation in the lives of Mexican American youth.

Very little research has been conducted on the experiences of Mexican American students in out-of-school time programs and, in particular, how those experiences might influence their educational pathways over time. Existing large-scale longitudinal studies of academic attainment collect only limited measures of extracurricular participation (Vandell et al. 2015). Meanwhile, Mexican American students tend to have limited access to organized activities and participate at lower rates than their peers (Covay and Carbonaro 2010; Dumais 2006; Simpkins et al. 2011). Yet as the proportion of Mexican American children in our public schools continues to rise and the importance of organized activities for school success continues to increase, practitioners, policymakers, and researchers will require a better understanding of how such programs might influence educational attainment.

Through an in-depth longitudinal look into former participants’ lives across school, home, and community contexts, this book not only illuminates the processes through which out-of-school time participation is associated with improved educational outcomes, but it also highlights the complex reasons why some adolescents benefit more than others. All of the young people profiled in this study attended the same middle school, and five to seven years later all attend a higher education institution of some kind. Yet each participant’s path to college was unique, including substantial variation in family support, peer influences, teacher interventions, and extracurricular participation. Participation did not work in the same way for all students, nor should we expect uniform results. For some adolescents—both high and low achievers—program participation did not significantly alter their predicted pathway. Already successful students opted for additional enrichment opportunities and continued along their road to college. Struggling teens got drawn in by guidance counselors or parental mandate, yet they still dropped out of school or got in trouble with the law. For some adolescents, however, program participation became a life-changing experience. While existing studies of out-of-school time posit that participation is universally beneficial, the case study of the Students Together program presented in this book instead spotlights variation in the ways an extracurricular program might influence adolescents’ educational trajectories.

Building on a detailed exploration of how and why this influence varies, Why Afterschool Matters sounds a call for more holistic considerations of the role of organized activities in adolescents’ lives. This book highlights three factors that interact to explain the differential impact associated with Students Together: the strength and nature of the relationships students have outside the program, the multiple school and community structures they are embedded in, and personal agency. I argue that researchers, practitioners, and policymakers must take into account the complex individual and structural factors contributing to varied outcomes as we consider the powerful ways through which out-of-school time programming can influence students’ pathways to college.

Students Together

Since the widespread advent of community-based out-of-school time programs in the early 1900s, disadvantaged urban youth have been viewed by philanthropists and policymakers as problems to be fixed (Halpern 2003). A sea change in the late 1980s, spurred in part by a Carnegie Corporation report titled A Matter of Time: Risk and Opportunity in the Nonschool Hours (1992), reoriented the purpose of organized activities toward offering positive youth development opportunities—helping keep kids out of trouble rather than intervening after the fact (Eccles and Gootman 2002). Proponents expanded these goals to emphasize the potential contribution engaged young people could make to community affairs (Pittman et al. 2003), and philanthropic funders followed suit (Kwon 2013).

The Students Together program grew out of this movement. Founded in 2000 as a partnership between Adams Middle School and a nearby university, Students Together was an afterschool youth leadership program for eighth-grade students. Program activities focused on teaching communication and interpersonal skills, critical reflection, and positive involvement in school and community affairs. The program year was divided into three curricular units, each building on the previous unit. In the first unit, students learned communication skills, such as active listening, debate, decision making, compromise, and group facilitation. In the next unit, participants developed and deepened their concepts of leadership by thinking critically about their personal leadership style, strengths and areas for growth, and the broader purpose of leadership. In the final unit, participants designed and implemented research and action projects, which began by thinking critically about challenges in their community and identifying research questions. They subsequently employed social science research methods—such as surveys, interviews, and focus groups—to gather data, analyze findings, and develop recommendations. While focusing explicitly on youth leadership, Students Together also sought to impart a strong of sense of efficacy and potential, while building a culture of respect and belonging.

On any given Tuesday at 3:36 p.m., the door to room 211 at Adams Middle School was propped open and a warm breeze wafted in. The open-air corridors, typical of California schools, bustled with the shrieks and footsteps of young people just released from classes and shuffling to catch their rides or jostling to keep up with friends. Amid the chaos, fifteen eighth graders stepped into room 211, dumped their backpacks and, newly unburdened from the weight of the day, ambled over to inspect the snack options. Munching on pretzels or Sun Chips or apples, some students lounged on the well-worn couches while others, reliving the events of the day, continued to bounce and chatter. Carolina and other staff members—primarily students from the nearby university—mingled, inquiring about upcoming school events and checking in on life at home.

Every meeting proceeded in the same manner. Once all the participants had arrived and enjoyed a few minutes to snack, chat, and decompress, Carolina invited everyone to come together in a circle. Some students dove for spots on the couch while others pulled up chairs from disparate corners of the room. The classroom had no desks, and the walls were adorned with posters proclaiming the group’s behavioral agreements, photos of Students Together participants at a recent retreat, and artwork created by the students. Carolina welcomed the group, pointed out the agenda on the whiteboard, and called on one student to read aloud the group agreements and the agenda.

First, opening circle time set the tone for the session and connected students to the lesson of the day through personal reflection. One at a time, each participant shared an opinion or experience on a given topic. For instance, as part of a session on communication, the facilitator asked students to share a rule they strongly favored or disliked. The opening circle was followed by a team-building activity. On this day, Carolina pretended to be an alien and had the students give her step-by-step directions for making a peanut-butter-and-jelly sandwich. The group expressed frustration at having to relay even the smallest details, like how to open the jelly jar and which end of the knife to use, and the conversation seamlessly shifted to the difficulty of engaging in good communication. The main lesson considered the role of debate in decision making. The group began by watching a clip of a presidential debate and then divided into teams to enact their own debate on the pros or cons of wearing matching socks. After a lively deliberation, the students debriefed the experience. How could the speakers have been more effective? What did they do well? Each session ended the way it began, with a group circle. The closing question asked students to share how debate might be applicable to their daily lives with family and friends. After everyone had a chance to share, Carolina thanked the students for their participation and offered a sneak peek at the next session.

The group met for ninety minutes, twice each week, and sessions were kept interactive through a combination of games, movement, discussion, and reflection. For example, participants often used a fist-to-five voting system, where each student held up one to five fingers to show how strongly they felt about a topic. Alternately, students might have weighed in on hot topics by placing stickers on a large piece of butcher paper next to ideas they supported. Sometimes facilitators used sticky notes to gather feedback from less vocal students. Sometimes they called for a snowball fight, where students wrote an idea on a piece of paper, wadded it up, and tossed it into the air. Each student then picked up a snowball and read aloud what one of their peers had written. At any point in a session, group leaders might have asked everyone to stop what they were doing and say something positive to the person standing next to them. Each session was organized around a concrete leadership skill or disposition, while each session also sought to engage a diverse audience of participants and maintain an affirming, empowering, and constructive environment. By the end of their year in the program, participants would have decided on an issue to work together to address. One cohort researched students’ experiences of bullying and stereotyping at Adams and presented the findings to school leaders. They made several recommendations, including a peer mediation program and teacher training in positive classroom management. Other cohorts addressed other issues, such as the cleanliness and physical appearance of their school and the need for youth hangout spaces in the community.

Ana, Teresa, and Maria were members of the first three cohorts to participate in the Students Together program, between 2000 and 2003. In 2008, I sought to track down former participants—now young adults—to find out what had become of them after their year in the program.

After their eighth-grade year was over, Ana, Teresa, and Maria went their separate ways. At the end of Ana’s eighth-grade year, her mother died. The death took a toll on the family. During high school, Ana’s father, who was often working, assigned Ana and her sister responsibility for all household chores. As a sophomore, Ana got a part-time job. Although she did not participate in afterschool activities in high school, she joined two lunchtime clubs, one for community service and the other a support group for politically conscious Latinas.

Upon graduation, Ana enrolled at a local community college while working full-time. During this time she learned she was pregnant. She took one term off from school while she gave birth to and cared for her child. Two months later, she returned to working days and going to school at night, while leaving her baby in the care of her aunt. After two years of taking classes she was still unsure of her major, but she enjoyed attending college and maintained a commitment to eventually attaining a bachelor’s degree. As a college student, Ana’s recollections of Students Together had faded. She remembered liking the program because she got to help the community, meet new people, and work on a project, but she had no recollection of the project and no lasting ties to the program.

After eighth grade, Teresa opted to attend a different high school from her middle school peers in order to have a fresh start socially. Again, academics came easily. Now, for the first time, the social aspects of school were less daunting. Outside school, Teresa spent most of her time volunteering—at the senior center, the public library, or Students Together. Starting in her sophomore year, Teresa also worked part-time. After graduating from high school, Teresa moved into her own apartment and enrolled in community college to pursue a degree in nursing. She liked nursing because, as in many of her high school activities, “you get to help people.” Two years out of high school, Teresa was halfway through the nursing program and ready to transfer to a four-year university to complete her degree. She worked full-time and continued to volunteer every week.

For Teresa, Students Together stood out as a turning point and as the one part of middle school where she felt as if she belonged. Thanks to the supportive environment and adult staff members, she started to become more outgoing and confident, a trend that continued throughout her high school and college years.

For Maria, Students Together connected her with resources and relationships that pointed her in a new direction. As a high school student, Maria continued to participate as a mentor in Students Together and through her continued ties to the program she had the opportunity to travel to national youth development conferences. She also volunteered as a tutor for elementary school children and cofounded a support group for Latinas. Maria reflected, “If I didn’t keep going in Students Together, I would be a different person right now. I have a lot of friends who are in jail, some of my friends are pregnant and they have babies, some are married already.” As an eighth grader, Maria was on the same path. Instead, by the time she graduated from high school Maria had earned a prestigious community leadership award and a college scholarship. Two years later, she was sharing an apartment with a friend, working full-time, and attending community college.

For Maria, Students Together brought about an academic and personal transformation. Over the course of the year, she went from the verge of dropping out to achievement as a star student. Maria’s commitment to her education prompted her teachers and peers to begin to see her differently and put her on a pathway to becoming a college graduate.

Though Ana, Teresa, and Maria all enjoyed participating in the same extracurricular program as eighth graders, five to seven years later each remembered different aspects of the experience. Ana remembered Students Together positively—even calling it the best “one of those programs” in which she took part. Over the long run, however, her own dedication and aptitude coupled with support from friends and family carried her through school and onto higher education, in spite of tragedy and complications. For Teresa, her academic aptitude, attitudes toward college, and support from home placed her on a college path before joining Students Together. Yet participation made an impression on Teresa that was distinguishable from other experiences, primarily because the positive environment and relationships with adult leaders influenced her sense of self. For Maria, participation had a transformative influence; while Students Together did not single-handedly change her life, the skill-building, peer networks, and relationships with adults began a cascade of opportunities that helped shift her path from gang involvement to college.

Ana, Teresa, and Maria each benefited from participating in Students Together, yet they benefited in different ways and to different degrees. Their stories illuminate the ways that variation in adolescents’ family, peer, and community support systems, as well as their personalities and interests, leave different openings for organized activities to influence their educational trajectories. By examining multiple contexts over an extended period of time, this book documents the distinct differences among the roles Students Together played for each participant. Building on a critical examination of the Students Together program, this book suggests a new framework for understanding the relationship between extracurricular participation and academic attainment by depicting that relationship as predicated on preexisting resources and supports and having the potential to alter future availability of resources and supports through new attitudes, behaviors, and social networks.

Educational Inequality and Shifting US Demographics

Latino/a youth are one of the fastest growing segments of the US population. Between 1997 and 2013, the number of Latino/a students in public schools nearly doubled (Krogstad and Fry 2014). Currently one in four school children is Latino/a, and by 2036 this number is predicted to rise to one in three. The rapid growth of the Latino/a population is especially pronounced in California where Latino/as already constitute 51 percent of all K–12 students and 38 percent of the overall population (...