The Southern Transjordan Edomite Plateau and the Dead Sea Rift Valley

The Bronze Age to the Islamic Period (3800/3700 BC–AD 1917)

Burton MacDonald

• Publisher: Oxbow Books
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781782978336
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Ancient History
• Index: History

Burton MacDonald presents an in-depth study of the archaeology and history of human presence over the past five-six thousand years in the southern segment of the Transjordan/Edomite Plateau and the Dead Sea Rift Valley to the west. The evidence from archaeology for the area spans the entire period though the time for which literary evidence is available is only the past 4000 years, from the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1550 BC). Once literary evidence is available, however, it complements the archaeological record and, as can be amply demonstrated, the written records can be clarified only through the archaeological data. These two sources are, thus, used to describe environments, resources, industries, settlement patterns, and the lifestyles of the inhabitants of this pivotal region. The result is a "story" of the people who lived in the area from the Bronze Age through the Islamic period. What is evident is that there were differences in certain archaeological periods in settlement patterns, as well as lifestyles, between those who lived on the southern segment of the Plateau and those who lived in the Dead Sea Rift Valley or in the lowlands immediately to the west. Moreover, it is obvious that when there were periods of trade and industry, for example, the spice trade and copper mining and processing, the population of the area was higher. Stable governance brought about growth in population and prosperity. But other factors also played their part in these ebbs and flows of population: climatic fluctuations affecting the availability of water and arable land; the development and adoption of new technologies in farming practices, raw material extraction and industrial methods, processes and transportation; and political change resulting in periods of relative stability and instability in government.

1

INTRODUCTION

There is evidence of human presence in the southern part of Jordan for the past million years. The projects in which I have been engaged for the past three to four decades documented some of this evidence. However, it appeared to be too much to present all this evidence for the area in one volume. Thus, heeding the advice of other researchers, I have decided to narrow the focus of this work to the last five–six thousand years. Thus, this is a presentation of the archaeology and history of human presence during the Bronze Age to Islamic periods in the southern segment of the Transjordan or Edomite Plateau and the Dead Sea Rift Valley to the west. It is based on archaeological, literary, and epigraphic evidence. Archaeological evidence for the area is available for the entire period from the beginning of the Early Bronze Age (3800/3700 BC) to the end of the Islamic period (AD 1917). Literary and epigraphic evidence for the area is, however, available for only the past 4000 years, or from the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 BC). Once literary and epigraphic evidence are available, they complement the archaeological record. And, as frequently indicated, the written records can be clarified only through the archaeological ones. These sources are, thus, used to describe environments, resources, industries, settlement patterns, and the life styles of the area’s inhabitants. The result is a “story” of the people who lived in the area from the beginning of the Bronze Age to the end of the Islamic period.

Geographical Area of Interest

The geographical territory of interest extends from Wadi al-Hasa in the north to Ras an-Naqab in the south, a distance of c. 115 km (Plate 1). From east to west, it spans a distance of c. 60 km, from the steppe to the international borderline between Jordan and Israel respectively (Plate 2). The western segment of the territory includes the Southern Ghors (Plate 3), Northeast `Arabah (Plate 4) as far south as Gharandal, including the Wadis Fidan and Fayan region. The total area covered is c. 6900 square kilometres (Fig. 1.1).

What must be initially emphasized about the area is that it encompasses three main morphological units, namely, Dead Sea Rift Valley, Transjordan Plateau/Western Highlands and desert (Fig. 1.2), and three plant geographical territories, namely, Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and Saharo-Sindian. The former are outlined in more detail below. For the present, however, it is important to note that within these morphological units elevations range from more than 1700 m above sea level on the Transjordan Plateau/Western Highlands of Jabal ash-Sharah to c. 400 m below sea level to the west of as-Safi in the Dead Sea Rift Valley (see below). Relative to the plant geographical units, the Mediterranean territory is characteristic of the highlands, the Irano-Turanian of the desert, and the Saharo-Sindian of Wadi `Arabah in the Dead Sea Rift Valley. Due to the three main morphological units and the plant geographical territories, one would expect to find challenges relative to settlement and human adaptation within the area. Moreover, as will be pointed out in subsequent chapters, there are often major differences in settlement patterns, usually due to the availability of resources, in these units during different archaeological periods.

Topography

As indicated above, the land of Jordan, from east to west, is divided into three main morphological units. Bender (1974; see also Macumber 2001, 3, fig. 1.1; 2008, 10, fig. 2.2) points out that the landscape is more complex than this division suggests. However, for the purposes of this work, these three divisions suffice. Moreover, the interest is only in segments of these three units.

It must be noted that the present landscape of Jordan is very different from what it was during various periods in the past. This is verified by geomorphic research for the various archaeological periods. For example, Donahue (2003, 48) posits that Wadi al-Karak, the wadi on which the Early Bronze Age (3800/3700–2000 BC) site of Bab adh-Dhra` is located, has been down cut 28 m over the past four–five thousand years. Moreover, Wadi an-Numayra, just to the south of Bab adh-Dhra`, and the wadi on which the archaeological site of an-Numayra is located, has been down cut c. 50 m during the same period of time (Schaub and Chesson 2007, 246). This indicates a great deal of erosion of these wadis in a relatively short period of time. The erosion and deterioration of the landscape is continuing.

The Dead Sea Rift Valley is a morphological unit characterized by a landscape distinct from the other two indicated above. It is a north-south linear feature with significantly lower elevations than the Transjordan Plateau or Highlands to the east (Bender 1974; Macumber 2001; 2008). For example, the surface of the Dead Sea is presently c. 417 m below ocean level and is continuing to drop in elevation. The area along the southeast segment of the Dead Sea is called the Southern Ghors. It extends southwards to the Khanazir Fault that is expressed as a 50 m high escarpment (Macumber 2001, 3; 2008, 9). Wadi `Arabah begins at the northern edge of the escarpment. Southward, over a distance of c. 74 km, the land rises to 230 m above sea level. This is the area of the watershed between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea. From here, the land gradually descends over a distance of c. 77 km to al-`Aqaba at the northern tip of the Red Sea.

Fig. 1.1: Map of Jordan and with ‘Geographical Area of Interest’ indicated.

The Transjordan Plateau/Western Highlands slopes gently towards the central plateau in the east. However, it is very steep towards the Dead Sea Rift Valley in the west and the Hisma Valley in the south. Specifically, on the west it drops over 1500 m in a little more than 25 km (Fig. 1.3); on the south, near Ras an-Naqab, the difference in altitude from top-to-base of the escarpment is c. 600 m over a distance of c. 1 km.

Within the Transjordan Plateau/Western Highlands morphological unit the Yarmuk River, Wadi az-Zarqa, Wadi al-Mujib, and Wadi al-Hasa, all flowing towards the west, have generally been designated as natural divisions of Jordan (Aharoni 1979, 36–41). They are seen, at least occasionally, as political, ethnic, and/or administrative boundaries. While they are geographical divisions, they are also the main water-carrying sources for the region.

Fig. 1.2: Major morphological units of Jordan.

As indicated, it is the southern segment of the Transjordan Plateau/Western Highlands from Wadi al-Hasa in the north to Ras an-Naqab in the south that is of specific interest in this work. This area is also called – due mostly to the Hebrew Scriptures/Old Testament – the Edomite Plateau. The mountain ridge Jabal ash-Sharah, from ash-Shawbak to Ras an-Naqab, is located in the southern half of this area. Its peaks rise to more than 1700 m above sea level. Towards the west, that is, towards the Dead Sea Rift Valley, the land drops, as mentioned above, precipitously to below sea level in the Southern Ghors and the Northeast `Arabah. In the southern segment of the plateau, wadis flow both to the north, emptying into Wadi al-Hasa (for example, Wadis `Afra, La`ban, Ja`is, Anmein, al-`Ali, Ahmar, and ar-Ruweihi), and to the west, emptying into the Southern Ghors and Northeast `Arabah (for example, Wadis al-Hasa, Umm Jufna, Fifa, Umruq, al-Khanazir, at-Tilah, ad-Dahal, al-Hassiya, Fidan, Faynan, al-Buweirida, Um Mithia, Musa, at-Tayyibah, and Gharandal) respectively (see Fig. 1.1). Most of these wadis, whose names will often change from highlands to lowlands, will be mentioned in the following chapters since it was along the ridges between these wadis that ancient routes were located. Moreover, springs are located in both the wadis themselves and along the approximately 1200–1100 m line on both the west and the east, within the area of interest (Plate 5). It was at these places that agricultural villages, hamlets, farms, and pastoralists’ camps were, of necessity, located in antiquity (Plate 6).

Fig. 1.3: Cross section of two morphological units in the Faynan region (adapted from Ravek and Shemida 2000).

The desert also represents a distinct landscape. It is located immediately east of the Transjordan Plateau. However, it is the steppe, the transition zone between the highlands and the desert or between the desert and the sown, which is of interest here (see Fig. 1.2). For it is in this zone, at the eastern base of the highlands or at the western extremity of the steppe, that springs are located. As indicated above, springs are also located at the western base of the highlands.

Plant Geographical Territories

The three plant geographical territories/regions of Jordan are present in the study area. Each of these territories is characterized not only by its vegetation but also by its climate and soils (Zohary 1962, 51) (Fig. 1.4). These territories greatly impacted and continue to impact human settlement. The Mediterranean territory has an average annual rainfall of 300 mm or more. This area includes a long belt of the Transjordan Plateau/Western Highlands. Its boundaries with the adjoining Irano-Turanian territory cannot be precisely drawn because the Mediterranean vegetation of the eastern and southern margins, which border on the steppe and the desert, has been subject to heavy human devastation. As will be seen below, there is evidence that the Mediterranean territory expanded to the south and east during more mesic – a moderate or well-balanced supply of moisture – environmental interludes. This would result in an expansion of the steppe at the expense of the desert.

The Irano-Turanian territory encircles the Mediterranean from south, east and west. Its annual precipitation varies from 200 to 350 mm. Agriculture in this territory is very poor, unstable, and almost entirely confined to plains and valleys (Zohary 1962, 51).

The Saharo-Sindian territory includes areas in the east and south of the Transjordan Plateau as well as a narrow spur within Wadi `Arabah, protruding northwards from the Gulf of al-`Aqaba. The boundaries it shares with the Irano-Turanian territory are vague. The Saharo-Sindian territory has a typical desert climate with a short rainy season and a long, hot, dry summer. Annual precipitation varies from 25 to 200 mm. Agriculture is altogether lacking, except in oases or flooded wadis. Vegetation is extremely poor and mainly confined to depressions, wadis and runnels.

What must be noted relative to the plant geographical territories is that through time and with changes in climate there would have been shifts in the distribution of African versus Asian biotypes – a group of genetically identical plants within a species. Thus, hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, and farmers would have moved with these shifts in plant distribution. Moreover, if land use leads to degradation of resources such as arable soils, sites would be moved periodically to new areas with less degraded resources.

Fig. 1.4: Plant geographical territories of Jordan.

The region of interest here is a peripheral one. Due to this fact, as will be pointed out in subsequent chapters, there were periods in the past, of “filling up” and “emptying out” in terms of human population. What we are probably witnessing today is what the area looks like when it is “filled up”. But as the archaeological evidence also shows, there were periods when this territory of southern Jordan was “emptying out”.

A number of reasons are generally set forth to explain shifting settlement patterns, that is, the nature of the distribution of settlements. These include climate, biotypes, changes in technologies, and availability or the lack of resources. However, other influences, for example, the social and political situation, trade, and warfare, are also said to explain this shift (Levy 1995, 241–243). Nevertheless, it was probably a combination of factors that led to periods of changes in human settlements in the area of interest.

Precipitation is of special importance in a peripheral region. Due to this fact, the palaeoclimate for each archaeological period will be described at the beginning of each chapter.

Natural Resources of the Area

The natural resources of the area include water, plants, animals, bitumen, salt and sulfur, copper and manganese, and gypsum.

WATER

The most critical resource is water. Water supply determines the abundance and distribution of other resources such as plants and animals available for hunting-gathering cultures, the crops that can be grown by farmers, and the animals that can be reared by both farmers and pastoralists. People are able to settle and continue to live in a place only when water is available and wisely used.

The primary source of water is rainfall. Secondary sources are springs, wells, flowing streams, and moisture stored in the soil. All of these are dependent ultimately on rainfall, which generally falls in the Transjordan Plateau/Western Highlands (Harlan 1988, 40–42).

Rainfall on the highlands infiltrates slowly through a chalky formation and is trapped by the hard limestone to emerge where erosion uncovers the impervious layers in the Dead Sea Rift Valley. The larger springs flow all year long and tend to be more stable, with less fluctuation, than the rainfall. Where the impervious layers are too deep, dug wells can tap sufficient water for irrigation. Wells are less reliable than springs and they often dry up. The ones that are dug on low terraces near perennial streams in wadi bottoms are more reliable and these are exploited on a limited scale.

Relative to water resources, Harlan notes that much of the life in the Southern Ghors and the Northeast `Arabah depends on rainfall in the highlands (1981, 162). Water delivery in these lowland areas depends not only on rain in the highlands but on water retention that is trapped and allowed to percolate slowly to the springs below or is released slowly from the upland soils to the perennial streams (Harland 1981, 162–163).

PLANTS

Cartwright’s analyses of the archaeobotanical material from Dayr `Ain `Abata (“Sanctuary of Lot”), along the southeast coast of the Dead Sea, immediately to the north of the area of interest, have provided a great deal of information on the flora of the area. This material, dating principally to the fifth-seventh centuries AD, included charcoal, desiccated wood, charred grain, fruits and seeds (2012, 511–517). Her research determined that the most abundant taxa represented in the charcoal and wood assemblages show a separation into cultivated taxa and those selected from the surrounding environment. The cultivated taxa are date palm, olive, grapevine, carob and fig. These were grown on or close to the site. The remaining taxa in the charcoal assemblages are tamarisk, acacia and caper. These are typical components of the local vegetati...