Modifying Schoolwork

Rachel Janney, Martha E. Snell

• Publisher: Brookes Publishing
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781598573183
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education Teaching Methods

Need quick, practical, ready-to-use guidance on teaching all students-and making appropriate modifications for kids who need extra support? Get a clear and concrete plan for K-12 inclusion in this NEW edition of the bestselling book in the Teachers' Guides to Inclusive Practices series. Packed with field-tested strategies, case studies, and planning tools, this hands-on guide will help teachers deliver effective universal instruction in core content areas and create customized adaptations and flexible supports for students with diverse needs and abilities. Teachers will learn what really works in inclusion, and they'll discover how to seamlessly weave in modifications while encouraging each student's sense of belonging.

NEW TO THIS EDITION:

• Practical guidance on implementing Universal Design for Learning
• Content aligns clearly with an RTI framework, with strategies spanning from whole-class instruction to highly individualized adaptations
• More on working with students with significant disabilities and complex learning needs -one of the biggest challenges of inclusion
• Easy-to-print forms that help teachers plan individualized supports and adaptations, available at www.brookespublishing.com
• Helpful "focusing questions" at the start of each chapter-perfect for preservice study and teacher book club discussions
• New stories from teachers and parents that spotlight real-world challenges and successes

With printable planning tools!

• Team Roles and Responsibilities Checklist
• Program-at-a-Glance
• Student Profile
• General Assessment of Classroom Activities
• Program Planning Matrix
• Individualized Adaptations and Support Plan
• and more

1

Inclusive Education

The Big Picture

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FOCUSING QUESTIONS

• What are the defining characteristics of inclusive education? What philosophical, organizational, and instructional practices provide the foundation for inclusive education?

• How do inclusive practices fit within schoolwide systems for student support and other current educational improvement efforts?

• What are some steps educators can take to improve their school’s systems for supporting all students, including those with disabilities?

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This book is designed to be a practical, hands-on resource for use by teams of general and special educators, support staff, and parents who share the goal of successfully educating students with a range of strengths and needs in typical schools and classrooms. The primary purpose of this book is to describe and illustrate a coordinated, flexible approach whereby educational teams can 1) plan and deliver instruction that is effective for students with diverse abilities and 2) create more specialized supports and interventions for students who need them—without undermining those students’ sense of belonging or status as class members. It is, of course, extremely important for administrators to be knowledgeable about the content of this book. Families of children with disabilities also may find it beneficial; however, the book’s primary intended audience is the members of school teams who actually design and deliver instruction on a day-to-day basis.

We consider elementary, middle, and high school classes that include students with a variety of special education classifications, although students with extensive support needs, whose individualized education programs (IEPs) require some curriculum modifications and the provision of multiple special education services and supports, receive particular attention. These students (who sometimes are described as having severe or multiple intellectual, physical, and communication disabilities and moderate to severe autism) typically have IEP accommodations and modifications that address support needs related to the instructional program as well as other support needs related to accessing and benefiting from educational opportunities. These latter supports include those associated with physical management and self-care; behavioral supports and interventions; and related services for motor, communication, or sensory needs. This book focuses on the accommodations and modifications specifically related to the instructional program. Although this book gives suggestions for determining IEP goals and the services and supports needed to accomplish them, it does not provide a comprehensive process for conducting multidisciplinary assessments or developing IEPs for students in inclusive settings. (See other sources for more comprehensive information about IEP development and other aspects of educating students with severe and multiple disabilities, e.g., Downing, 2008; Giangreco, Cloninger, & Iverson, 2011; Ryndak & Alper, 2003; Snell & Brown, 2011a. Behavioral Support [Janney & Snell, 2008], another title in the Teachers’ Guides to Inclusive Practices series, provides detailed guidance for the development of a range of positive behavioral interventions and supports.)

It takes great effort—on the part of many people across many years—to prepare a school system and its schools to provide effective education in inclusive contexts. The primary focus of this book is on classroom strategies rather than on the process of making school systems more inclusive. We do not extensively address the systemic change efforts that go into developing inclusive schools. However, we do provide some helpful resources (see Appendix B) and, in the final section of this chapter, suggest some general principles and specific strategies for moving forward with school improvement or systems change efforts.

This book focuses on the process of designing instruction that 1) is as universally effective as possible and 2) incorporates supports and adaptations for particular students in order to meet their individual educational needs while maintaining their class membership. We assume that these students are starting the school year in inclusive classrooms with classroom teachers who 1) consider all students to be full members of the class and 2) collaborate directly and indirectly with other teachers and support personnel as determined by the needs of the students. We also assume that general education and special education teachers are jointly responsible for students through collaborative teaming—but not necessarily through full time co-teaching.

This chapter provides an overview of some foundational principles and broad school and classroom practices that set the stage for effectively educating students in inclusive classes. Chapter 2 surveys a selection of curricular approaches and teaching methods that have been demonstrated to be generally effective in enhancing student achievement and facilitating the inclusion of students with diverse learning needs. Chapters 3 and 4 describe steps and strategies that can be used to develop individualized adaptations and supports when necessary. Also in Chapter 3, we describe a model or framework for making team decisions about the adaptations and supports needed by individual students with extensive needs. Chapter 4 further illustrates the steps for implementing and evaluating instruction for students with extensive support needs, including ways to adapt ongoing instruction and more specialized methods that may be needed to ensure students’ achievement. Chapter 5 provides guidelines and suggestions for inclusive instruction and assessment in the core academic areas of literacy, mathematics, and the social and natural sciences.

Although resources such as this one can help by providing guidelines and ideas for educating students in inclusive ways, the many differences among children, communities, and classrooms require that teams view their work as an ongoing process of figuring out what succeeds for particular students in particular schools and particular classroom situations. We cannot emphasize too strongly that inclusive schooling is an evolutionary process demanding that teams take a problem-solving orientation. The question to ask is “How can we make it work in this school for these students?” This book is intended to guide the collaborative problem-solving and decision-making processes involved in answering that question.

The processes of planning, delivering, and evaluating instruction require teaching teams to select and combine ideas that not only are consistent with current knowledge but also are practical and efficient. The soundness of the teaching practices described in this book is based on research or reasonable evidence; in addition, these teaching practices either have been validated in mixed-ability settings or hold promise as inclusive practices due to their flexibility and responsiveness to individual learner differences (Odom, Horner, Snell, & Blacker, 2007; Snell & Brown, 2011a).

Our thinking, and some of the strategies described in this book have, of course, been influenced by the work of other educators and scholars. Many of the conceptual issues, as well as some of the planning and communication tools, have been adapted from the work of other experts whose research and writing have long guided the practice of inclusive education (e.g., Downing, 2008; Giangreco, Cloninger, et al., 2011; Rogan & Davern, 1992; Udvari-Solner, Causton-Theoharis, & York-Barr, 2004). The first author (Janney) and teachers we know designed most of the student-specific planning tools and examples of adaptation strategies illustrated in this book. These teachers are master teachers with years of experience teaching students with diverse needs and abilities who have received relatively intense support from their school and school district administrators. Nonetheless, these teachers confront many of the same challenges facing their colleagues around the country in less inclusive school systems. These challenges include the demands for curriculum coverage and academic achievement that are so pressing for educators in today’s era of high-stakes testing and public accountability systems. In addition, these contributing teachers work in schools where a high proportion of students meet federal definitions for low income and other demographic factors that identify students as being at risk for difficulty in school. Therefore, although some of the specific practical strategies offered in this book are presented as ideal types, readers should rest assured that these strategies come from real teachers in real classrooms—where every school day brings challenges as well as rewards.

Throughout this book, each planning tool or strategy is illustrated using case examples drawn from classrooms and students we have known. (Blank copies of some of these forms are provided in Appendix A and are available online at http://www.brookespublishing.com/janney.) These case examples are composites that have been generated to illustrate the range of learning and support needs found in inclusive school systems in which all students have the opportunity to attend their neighborhood schools and are assigned to age-appropriate classes in natural proportions. The students range in age from 6 to 18 years and have a range of learning and support needs.

• Abby, a 6-year-old first-grade student, has a diagnosis of multiple disabilities, including an intellectual disability and mild cerebral palsy. She participates actively in many classroom activities with a variety of supports and adaptations. Abby uses a walker but is a bit unsteady and needs assistance to sit and stand. She communicates mainly through nonsymbolic communication but is learning to use picture symbols and a few words to make choices and requests. She sometimes communicates with problem behavior.

• Chase, who is 10 years old and in fourth grade, loves anything mechanical or electronic. He qualifies for special education under the classification of intellectual disability. Chase requires limited to extensive supports in all academic areas but only requires limited support in functional, daily living skills. He has significant behavioral support needs, which are addressed through a comprehensive plan for positive behavioral intervention and support (PBIS). Chase has a foundation of basic reading and math skills and a good store of general knowledge. He is very active and curious and has a strong will; it can be difficult to engage him in any task not of his own choosing for more than 5–10 minutes.

• Vanessa, a sixth-grade student with a learning disability, has excellent skills in mathematics, problem solving, and higher-order thinking but experiences challenges with reading (decoding and fluency), writing processes, and organization. She has become self-conscious about her learning difficulties and needs supports to develop self-esteem as well as self-control.

• Aaron, a 17-year-old, has an intellectual disability and cerebral palsy. He will graduate from 12th grade this school year and is actively involved in the transition from high school to postsecondary education. Next year, he plans to attend a post–high school program, which is based at a nearby community college. Because he has cerebral palsy, he uses a wheelchair for much of the day and uses a variety of means to communicate: sounds; facial expressions; gestures; yes or no responses; and a computerized, portable voice-output communication device. There has been a history of multiple efforts to ensure that Aaron has a reliable communication system to use at all times; these efforts are ongoing.

DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusion is far more complex than just the provision of supports and services. . . . Inclusion is really about school renewal and change to improve the education system for all students. Effective inclusion practices require changes in the curriculum, in how teachers teach, in how students learn, and in how students with and without disabilities as well as their teachers interact with one another. . . . Effective schooling practices and inclusive models of education are synonymous and interdependent. (Grenot-Scheyer, Fisher, & Staub, 2001, pp. 3–4)

The material in this book is based on several assumptions and beliefs about what is meant by inclusive education and what it takes to do it successfully. In our view, inclusive education is a systemwide and schoolwide proposition and not a type of schooling that can be provided for certain students or certain schools (e.g., “the inclusion student” or “the inclusion school”) or on an intermittent basis (e.g., “They’re included for specialties and lunch,” “She’s included for center time on Wednesdays and Fridays”).

The list of seven critical characteristics of inclusive schools provided in Table 1.1 makes clear that inclusion is far more than a place and far more than an effort to change special education services and strategies. Indeed, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004 (PL 108-446) defines special education as “specially designed instruction . . . to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability” (20 U.S.C. § 1400; IDEA, § 602[29]), a definition that makes no reference to the place where such instruction occurs. Federal regulations define specially designed instruction as “adapting . . . content, methodology, or delivery of instruction to meet the unique needs of the child that result from the child’s disability; and to ensure access of the child to the general education curriculum” (34 C.F.E. 300.39 [3]).

Table 1.1. Characteristics of inclusive schools

All students are welcome to attend the schools in their attend...