The Road Not Traveled

Education Reform in the Middle East and North Africa

Ahmed Galal

• Publisher: World Bank Publications
• Year: 2008
• eBook ISBN: 9780821370636
• Edition: 0
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Educational Policy

'The Road Not Traveled: Education Reform in the Middle East and North Africa Region' evaluates the impact of past investment in education in the region and proposes a new approach to future education reforms. The book shows that the region has invested heavily in education, and was able to make remarkable progress. Most eligible children, boys and girls, are now enrolled at different levels of instruction. Fertility and infant mortality rates as well as life expectancy have all improved. However, the contribution of past investments in education to economic growth, poverty reduction and income distribution were modest. Moreover, the education systems are not fully prepared to deal with the increasing role of knowledge in economic development, an emerging youth bulge and the growing financial constraints on expending education. Nor are most economies of the region prepared to absorb an increasingly educated labor force in dynamic and productive sectors. Thus, the region must travel a new road.This new road has two pillars: the first is an approach to education reform that focuses on incentives and public accountability, beside the education process itself; the other emphasizes closing the gap between the supply of educated individuals and labor demand both internally and externally. Despite its density and rich economic content, the book is intended to be read, discussed and utilized by a diverse and wide regional audience, including policy-makers, civil society and academia, both inside and outside the education sector.

Table of contents

• Contents
• Foreword
• Acknowledgments
• Abbreviations
• Overview
• PART I INTRODUCTION
• PART II INTRODUCTION
• PART III INTRODUCTION
• Statistical Appendix
• Index
• Table 1.1 Average of Public Expenditure in Education as a Percentage of GDP, 1965–2003
• Table 1.2 Public Expenditure per Student by Level of Education and Ratio of Expenditure for Secondary/Primary and Tertiary/Primary, 2000
• Table 1.3 Access to Primary School Education: Net Enrollment Rate, Repetition Rate, and Pupils Reaching Grade Five, 1970–2003
• Table 1.4 Gross Enrollment Rates in Secondary and Tertiary Education, 1970–2003
• Table 1.5 Average Years of Schooling of the Total Population Aged 15 and Over, 1960–2000
• Table 1.6 Average Test Scores of TIMSS and PISA, GDP/Capita (2003), and Gross Secondary Enrollment Rate
• Table 1.7 Test Scores of TIMSS and PISA Unadjusted, and Adjusted for GDP/Capita Ordered by Residuals
• Table 1.8 Distribution of University Students by Field of Study
• Table 1.9 Illiteracy Rates of the Population Aged 15 and Over by Gender, 1980–2000/04
• Table 1.10 Distribution of Education, 1970–2000
• Table 1.11 Enrollment Rates for Poor and Nonpoor
• Table 1.12 Private Enrollment Share in Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Education as a Percentage of Total Enrollment, 1980–2003
• Table 1.13 Gender Parity Index of Gross Intake Rate to Grade 1, Gross Enrollment Rate, and Repetition Rate in Primary Education
• Table 1.14 Gender Parity Index of Gross Enrollment Rate in Secondary and Tertiary Education
• Table 2.1 Cross-Country Growth Regression Results
• Table 2.2 GDP per Capita Growth
• Table 2.3 Total Factor Productivity Growth by Region, 1960s–1990s
• Table 2.4 Scientific and Technological Capacities in World Regions
• Table 2.5 Income Distribution, 1960–2003
• Table 2.6 Income Distribution as Measured by Ratio of Income Earned by Highest 20 Percent of Income Earners to Lowest 20 Percent of Income Earners, 1995–2002
• Table 2.7 Gini Coefficients of the Distribution of Education, 1970–2000
• Table 2.8 Private and Social Rates of Return to Education by Level of Education, 1970s–1990s
• Table 2.9 Female Labor Force Participation Rates, 1980–2003, by Country
• Table 2.10 Share of People Living on Less than $1 and $2 per Day by Region, 1981–2001
• Table 2.11 Proportion of Population under Poverty Line, 1990s
• Table 2.12 Fertility Rates, 1962–2003
• Table 5.1 Distribution of Reform Measures by Levels of Education, Percent
• Table 5.2 Distribution of Reform Measures by Objectives of Education, Percent
• Table 5.3 Distribution of Reform Measures by Type of Reform over Time, Percent
• Table 5.4 Distribution of Reform Measures by Sector over Time, Percent
• Table 5.5 Distribution of Reform Measures by Objective and Reform Phases, Percent
• Table A.1 The MENA Education Reform Database
• Table A.2 Examples of Engineering Measures
• Table A.3 Examples of Incentives
• Table A.4 Public Accountability Measures and Examples
• Table 6.1 Engineering Features of the Education Systems in Selected MENA Countries
• Table 6.2 Primary Teacher Stocks, Flows, and Additional Teachers Needed to Reach UPE by 2015
• Table 6.3 Locus of Decision Making in Basic and Secondary Education
• Table 6.4 Regulations Affecting Private Schools, mid-1990s
• Table 6.5 Industrial Organization Features of the Education Systems in Selected MENA Countries
• Table 7.1 Distribution of the Labor Force and the Unemployed in Selected MENA Economies, by Education
• Table 7.2 Private Rates of Return to Schooling in MENA Countries, by Gender and Sector
• Table 7.3 Rates of Return to Education across a Sample of Countries
• Table 7.4 Female Labor Force Participation Rates, 1980–2004
• Table 7.5 Employment Elasticity of Growth in MENA versus Other Regions, 1990–2004
• Table 7.6 Public Sector Employment in MENA
• Table 7.7 Overall Trade Restrictiveness Index (OTRI) for MENA and Other Developing Countries, 2001
• Table 7.8 Growth in Informal Sector in Egypt by Education, 1990–1998
• Table 8.1 International Migration Trends, 2000
• Table 8.2 Net Migration in Selected MENA Countries, 1970–2000
• Table 8.3 International Migration in MENA, 1970–2000
• Table 8.4 Foreign Labor Force in the Gulf States, 1975-2000
• Table 8.5 Share of Arabs in Total Foreign Population in the Gulf States, 1975 and 2002
• Table 8.6 The Distribution of the Labor Force by Arab and Asian Origin in Kuwait, 1989 and 2000
• Table 8.7 Temporary Egyptian Migrants by Receiving Country, 2000
• Table 8.8 Occupation of Egyptian Migrants in Arab Countries, 1985 and 2002
• Table 8.9 Work Permits Granted to Egyptians in Some Arab Countries by Occupation, 1985–2002
• Table 8.10 Distribution of Migrants by Educational Level in Selected MENA Countries, Various Years
• Table 8.11 Population from North Africa in Selected EU Countries
• Table 8.12 Moroccan Migrants in Main OECD Countries, 2002
• Table 8.13 Egyptian Migrants in OECD Countries, 2000
• Table 8.14 Immigrants (Aged 15 and Over) in Canada by Country of Birth and Level of Schooling, 2001
• Table 8.15 Stocks of Foreign and Foreign-Born Labor in the Labor Force of Selected OECD Countries, 1992–2001
• Table 8.16 Workers’ Remittances, 1990–2003
• Table 8.17 Workers’ Remittances Received by Developing Countries by Region, 1999–2004
• Table 8.18 Emigration Rates from MENA to OECD by Educational Level, 1999 and 2000
• Table 8.19 Emigration Rates to OECD and Selectivity by Region, 2000
• Table 8.20 Probability of Obtaining Skilled Jobs: Different Cohorts and Education Levels for Selected Countries, 1970–1990
• Table A.1 Pupil-Teacher Ratio in Primary Education, 1970–2004
• Table A.2 Pupil-Teacher Ratio in Secondary Education, 1970–2003
• Table A.3 Pupil-Teacher Ratio in Tertiary Education, 1970–2002
• Table A.4 Percentage of Trained Teachers in Primary Education, 1998–2003
• Table A.5 Percentage of Trained Teachers in Secondary Education, 1998–2003
• Table A.6 Public Expenditure in Education as Percent of GDP, 1970–2003
• Table A.7 Public Expenditure in Education as Percent of Government Spending, 1980–2003
• Table B.1 Gross Enrollment Rate in Primary Education, 1950–2004
• Table B.2 Gross Enrollment Rate in Secondary Education, 1950–2003
• Table B.3 Gross Enrollment Rate in Tertiary Education, 1970–2003
• Table B.4 Net Enrollment Rate in Primary Education, 1970–2004
• Table B.5 Gross Intake Rate to Grade 1, 1970–2003
• Table C.1 Gender Parity Index of Primary Gross Enrollment Rate, 1960-2003
• Table C.2 Gender Parity Index of Secondary Gross Enrollment Rate, 1960–2003
• Table C.3 Gender Parity Index of Tertiary Gross Enrollment Rate, 1970–2003
• Table C.4 Gender Parity Index of Gross Intake Rate, 1970–2003
• Table C.5 Gender Parity Index of Repetition Rate in Primary Education, 1970–2003
• Table D.1 Survival Rate to Grade 5, 1970–2003
• Table D.2 Primary Completion Rate, 1990–2003
• Table D.3 Repetition Rate in Primary Education, 1970–2003
• Table D.4 Repetition Rate in Secondary Education, 1970–2003
• Table D.5 Dropout Rate in Primary Education, 1975–2004
• Table D.6 Dropout Rate in Secondary, Lower Secondary, and Upper Secondary Education, 1975–2004
• Table D.7 Private Enrollment Share in Primary Education, 1985–2003
• Table D.8 Private Enrollment Share in Secondary Education, 1975–2003
• Table D.9 Private Enrollment Share in Tertiary Education, 2000–2003
• Table E.1 TIMSS Score in Math of 8th Grade, 1995, 1999, and 2003
• Table E.2 TIMSS Score in Science of 8th Grade, 1995, 1999 and 2003
• Table E.3 Adult Literacy Rate (Aged 15 and Older), 1955–2004
• Table E.4 Average Years of Schooling of Adults, 1960–2000
• Figure 1.1 Fertility and Mortality Rates and Life Expectancy, 1960–2004
• Figure 2.1 Size of Government around the World by Region, 1990s
• Figure 2.2 Public Sector Employment as a Share of Total Employment in MENA Countries
• Figure 2.3 Ratio of Public Spending per Student in University Compared to Primary School, 1980 and 2000
• Figure 2.4 Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction by Region, 1980–2000
• Figure 2.5 Average Annual Reduction in Incidence of Poverty Associated with 1 Percent Increase in Average per Capita Consumption
• Figure 2.6 Population Growth Rate by Country and Region, 1970–79 and 1990–2003
• Figure 3.1 Knowledge Economy Index with the Breakdown of Index of Four Pillars
• Figure 3.2 Demand for Job Skills is Changing Rapidly
• Figure 3.3 Percent of Youth Population by Region, 1950–2050
• Figure 3.4 Population Pyramid of MENA and the World, 2002
• Figure 3.5 Changes in the Age Group (6–11) Population in Selected MENA Countries, 1950–2050
• Figure 3.6 Education Attainment in the Population in MENA (Weighted Average), Age 25 and Above, 1975, 1985, and 2000
• Figure 3.7 Education Attainment of Adult Population for Selected MENA Countries, 2030
• Figure 3.8 Public Spending on Education in MENA, Most Recent Year during 1999–2003
• Figure 3.9 Evolution of the Proportion of Private Primary Education in 1990 and 2002
• Figure 3.10 The Absolute Value of Average Costs per Student in MENA and Non-MENA Countries, US$ (PPP)
• Figure 3.11 Spending per Pupil as a Proportion of GDP per Capita in MENA and Non-MENA Countries, Percent
• Figure 3.12 Pupil-Teacher Ratio by Level of Education, 1970–2002
• Figure 3.13 Historical Enrollment of Students in Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Education
• Figure 3.14 Projection of the Number of Students Completing Secondary School in Selected MENA Countries
• Figure 4.1 The Three Building Blocks of the Analytical Framework
• Figure 4.2 Three Actors and Three Contractual Relationships
• Figure 4.3 The Three Building Blocks of the Analytical Framework
• Figure 6.1 Primary Net Enrollment Rates and Secondary and Tertiary Gross Enrollment Rates, in 1970 and 2003
• Figure 6.2 Integrated Index for Access
• Figure 6.3 Gender Parity Indices of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Gross Enrollment Rates, in 1970 and 2003
• Figure 6.4 Gini Coefficients of Average Years of Schooling, 1975 and 2000
• Figure 6.5 Integrated Index for Equity
• Figure 6.6 Primary Completion Rate, 1990 and 2003
• Figure 6.7 Adult Literacy Rates and TIMSS 2003 Mathematics and Science Average Scores
• Figure 6.8 Integrated Index for Quality
• Figure 6.9 Integrated Index for Access, Equity, Efficiency, and Quality
• Figure 6.10 Average Percentage of Total Instructional Time Allocated to Religious Education and Morals in Grades 7 and 8, by World Regions, 2000
• Figure 6.11 Educational Outcomes and Political Accountability
• Figure 7.1 Unemployment in MENA, 2004
• Figure 7.2 Distribution of the Labor Force and the Unemployed in MENA by Education
• Figure 7.3 Real Wages in Manufacturing in MENA, 1985–2003
• Figure 7.4 Dynamics of Labor Supply in MENA Countries, 1950–2020
• Figure 7.5 Private Sector Contribution to GDP, Early 2000s
• Figure 7.6 Contract Enforcement Procedures, 2004
• Figure 7.7 World Bank MENA Index of Quality of Public Sector Administration 2004, by Region
• Figure 7.8 World Bank MENA Region’s Index of Public Sector Accountability 2004
• Figure 7.9 Difficulty with Hiring and Firing in MENA
• Figure 7.10 Non-oil Exports as a Proportion of GDP, 1990 and 2003
• Figure 8.1 Occupation of Foreign Born by Country of Birth in the United States, 2000
• Figure 8.2 Top 20 Developing-Country Recipients of Workers’ Remittances, 2003
• Figure 8.3 Top 20 Country Sources of Remittance Payments, 2003
• Figure 8.4 Per Capita Migrants’ Remittances by Region, 1998–2002
• Figure 8.5 Expatriate Rate, 2005
• Figure 8.6 Stock of Emigrants from MENA to OECD by Educational Level, 1990 and 2000
• Figure 8.7A Probability of Unemployment by Educational Level in Egypt, 1998
• Figure 8.7B Probability of Unemployment by Educational Level in Morocco, 1999
• Box 3.1. Flexibility of Vocational Education and Training (VET) Systems in Selected MENA Countries
• Box 4.1 Teacher Incentives Work, but Not Always
• Box 4.2 Report Cards and School-Self Assessments Strengthen Parental Involvement and Community Mobilization
• Box 4.3 Well-balanced Reform Approach: Successful Case of Bogotá in Colombia
• Box 5.1 Education in the Constitutions of Selected MENA Countries
• Box 5.2 Different Paths to Arabization in the Maghreb Countries
• Box 6.1 Summary of Pedagogical Reforms in Tunisia, Jordan, Egypt, and Iran
• Box 6.2 Information and Communication Technologies and Education
• Box 6.3 Private Tutoring in Egypt
• Box 6.4 School Autonomy Matters: Examples from International Experiences
• Box 9.1 Learning from Successful Private Schools: The Case of Fe y Alegria in Venezuela
• Box 9.2 Information is a Key to Promoting Accountability in Education: The Case of Uganda