Inclusive Principles and Practices in Literacy Education

Marion Milton, Chris Forlin

• Publisher: Emerald Publishing Limited
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN: 9781787145900
• eBook ISBN: 9781787149861
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education Theory & Practice

This volume draws together research and practice from the fields of literacy education and inclusion. As such it provides an insight into current theory, research and issues associated with teaching literacy to all students in inclusive classrooms. Literacy remains a critical success factor for students, as the basis for concurrent and future learning throughout the curriculum. As such, we take a broadened view of inclusive education and include not only students with disabilities and learning difficulties, but also those whose linguistic, cultural or social backgrounds act to marginalise or inhibit their learning.

Numerous books publish research on inclusive education but this volume is dedicated to the critical aspect of literacy and inclusive practices in a range of countries. The changes to literacy in today's technological world are considered along with the impact on teaching and learning. Examples of good practice are provided, as are models of effective inclusion and differentiation in literacy teaching at different year levels, for different groups of students and the application in important subjects such as mathematics and science.

Chapter authors have expertise in the fields of pre-school and early literacy, mathematical, technology and science literacy, English as an additional language, literacy difficulties in primary and secondary schools, inclusion and special education. They provide highly relevant research and useful information for researchers, teacher educators and those engaged at all levels of the implementation of inclusive literacy education in schools.

PART I
LITERACY, INCLUSION AND ACCESS TO THE CURRICULUM: INTERNATIONAL INSIGHTS

LITERACY AND INCLUSION: CURRENT PERSPECTIVES

Marion Milton

ABSTRACT

This chapter addresses the concept of Literacy for all under a broadened view of inclusion in education. Definitions of inclusion, literacy and inclusive literacy are provided prior to consideration of some of the issues associated with developing and improving the literacy of every student in regular classroom contexts. It presents a brief overview of theory and international research, and as an example, provides some insights into current educational policies, practices and provision in Australia in relation to literacy education.

Keywords: Literacy; inclusive education; inclusive literacy practices; literacy difficulties; literacy in Australia

INTRODUCTION

This chapter begins with definitions of inclusion, literacy and inclusive literacy education. Inclusive education is increasingly a focus of schooling across the world, as is the provision of appropriate literacy learning environments, so an international perspective has been taken. Surveys conducted by international organisations have been consulted to obtain an indication of the range of definitions. A brief overview of current perspectives and international research is then presented and policies and practices in Australia are outlined.

DEFINITIONS: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

In general terms, inclusive education can be viewed as education in which the barriers to participation and learning are eliminated from classrooms and schools. This interpretation is in accord with the United Nations (UN) goal of Education for All. A statement by the UN indicates the goal is only achievable if inequity related to poverty, gender, health, access, provision and disability is addressed (United Nations, 2015).

In UNESCO’s ‘Policy Guidelines to Inclusive Education’, it is stated that ‘an inclusive education system can only be created if ordinary schools become more inclusive – in other words, if they become better at educating all children in their communities’ (UNESCO, 2009, p. 8). Inclusive education is defined as ‘an ongoing process aimed at offering quality education for all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of the students and communities, eliminating all forms of discrimination’ (UNESCO, 2009, p. 18). The European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education (2015, p. 2) hereafter called the European Agency states that in inclusive education ‘all learners of any age are provided with meaningful, high quality educational opportunities in their local community, alongside their friends and peers’.

Another view looks at barriers which lead to exclusion, and examines the ways in which unintentional exclusion may occur due to programs, texts, language, activities or behaviours that limit full participation and understanding for some students (Munns, Sawyer, & Cole, 2013). Some notions of inclusive education go further than removing barriers and indicate that inclusion values difference (Booth & Ainscow, 2011). In order to value difference, teachers and students need to welcome and respect all students regardless of background, culture, language or disability. In many cases a Values Framework is introduced in schools to assist teachers to understand how the values and attitudes they hold towards students’ impact on outcomes (Booth & Ainscow, 2011).

A socio-cultural perspective on inclusive education originates in the notion that all knowledge is co-constructed in a social context and students form a community of learners to learn through interaction with others. In the case of inclusion, all students are expected to contribute within the community to the best of their ability, and their contributions will be accepted (Danforth & Jones, 2015).

An overview of inclusive educational policies, presented definitions from seven international regions. For example, policy documents from Finland describe inclusive education as usual instruction that could be partially or fully in special placements. In Alberta, Canada inclusive education aims to provide all students with the most appropriate learning environments, which include segregated forms. In the United Kingdom, policies indicate that inclusion is about encouraging mainstream and special schools to come together to support students and to form a community. Italian policy mentions specialised personnel responding to the needs of vulnerable students and the reallocation of resources to regular schools (Forlin, Chambers, Loreman, Deppeler, & Sharma, 2013).

Australian curriculum documents note that inclusive education provides age-appropriate differentiated learning and high expectations of all students, this provision includes a range of placements including partial regular class inclusion along with co-location of special and regular schools (ACARA, 2016). In the aforementioned survey of international literature, it was noted that curriculum statements on inclusion differed across the literature surveyed, and there was a disparity between policies and practices in schools (Forlin et al., 2013).

In this chapter, the tenets of inclusion outlined by Booth and Ainscow (2011), the understandings of inclusion provided by UNESCO and the European Agency are taken into consideration. Their statements along with those found within Australian curriculum documents (ACARA, 2012, 2016) are used as the basis for developing the following definition of inclusion:

Inclusive education is one that provides high quality, age-appropriate education either wholly or partially in a supportive regular class environment, in which each student’s learning needs are recognised and can be met through acceptance, high expectations, differentiation and explicit, personalised learning.

DEFINITIONS: LITERACY

In terms of literacy, there have been many definitions, historically and from a range of perspectives, and in different contexts. In 2006 a UNESCO Global Monitoring Report titled ‘Literacy for Life’ indicated how literacy was defined by aid agencies who often fund and deliver schooling programs, and by governments around the world, which will influence policies and schooling practices. The agencies included UNICEF and World Bank, and International Development Organisations/Agencies from the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Canada, Denmark, Sweden, Germany and New Zealand. Some definitions were about the basic skills of reading, writing and number, whilst a few indicated that these skills were for further learning or effective functioning in society. A survey of literacy definitions stated in government documents from a number of countries revealed: some stated that literacy was the ability to read and write simple sentences; others added ‘in any language’; some indicated a literate person could read a newspaper with ease, and some indicated age criteria, such as over 5 or over 12. A few indicated that it was about reading and writing skills needed to fulfil tasks required in daily life (UNESCO, 2006).

A summary statement on the evolving definition of literacy indicates literacy as being; ‘beyond simply “the set of technical skills of reading, writing and calculating” …to a plural notion encompassing the manifold of meanings and dimensions of these undeniably vital competencies’. It is also stated that literacy is a basic human right (UNESCO, 2006).

The International Literacy Association defines literacy as: ‘the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, compute, and communicate using visual, audible, and digital materials across disciplines and in any context’ (International Literacy Association, 2016).

The following, rather broad definition of literacy is used in the Australian curriculum: ‘the knowledge and skills students need to access, understand, analyse and evaluate information, make meaning, express thoughts and emotions, present ideas and opinions, interact with others and participate in activities at school and in their lives beyond school’ (ACARA, 2016). A statement in the Australian curriculum on how literacy develops indicates that: ‘Students become literate as they develop the knowledge, skills and dispositions to interpret and use language confidently for learning and communicating in and out of school and for participating effectively in society. Literacy involves students listening to, reading, viewing, speaking, writing and creating oral, print, visual and digital texts, and using and modifying language for different purposes in a range of contexts’ (ACARA, 2012, p. 16).

Literacy is complex and there is a range of differing definitions, depending on the focus of the definition, such as whether an author is discussing early literacy, literacy difficulties, adult literacy, literacy in relation to technology and so on. It may also depend on the purpose of the definition; whether, for example, it is written as part of a journal article, a curriculum document, or a professional association or agency’s stance on literacy. Some sources avoid defining literacy indicating that it is complex, changing and constantly being investigated or that the distinction between literacy and use of technology has dissolved (Groundwater-Smith, Brennan, McFadden, Mitchell, & Munns, 2009; McLachlan, Nicholson, Fielding-Barnsley, Mercer, & Ohi, 2013).

The definitions supported in this document are those of the International Literacy Association and the Australian Curriculum. The reason for the choices is that they both reflect the complexity of literacy and are appropriate for the mix of international and Australian authors. Individual authors may use slightly different definitions according to their contexts.

In a discussion of what literacy means in the 21st century, Gregson states that the notion of being literate has changed with complexities developing that had not been previously considered. She goes further to state that ‘literacy has become more than a right, and being literate has become a necessity’ (Gregson, 2013, p. 8). These notions are supported by others. In a background, ministerial paper titled Skills for a digital world, increased skill demands are noted. ‘The pervasiveness of digital technologies in daily life is fundamentally changing the way individuals access and elaborate knowledge. Individuals have to process complex information, think systematically and take decisions weighting different forms of evidence’ (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2016, p. 4). Expanded views are expressed in a publication of the Association of International Educators, in which it is noted that change in world demands means that students need scientific and technical literacy along with critical thinking and problem solving skills (West, 2012).

LITERACY EDUCATION

Literacy is currently considered to be multimodal, integrating reading and writing with viewing, analysing and responding (Gregson, 2013; Walsh, 2008). It requires teaching that encourages learning that is collaborative and participatory, multimodal, self-directed and creative, particularly at the secondary level (Kajder, 2010). There has also been a shift to curriculum content that is more relevant to students and cross-curricula teaching and learning. One such iteration is ‘problem-based’ learning, with the intent to prepare students for the real-life world of work in which people work in teams to solve problems. In problem solving there is a focus on developing the skills outlined in an upgraded Bloom’s Taxonomy that include: remembering, understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating and creating (Frey, Fisher, & Gonzalez, 2010, p. 19). In real terms, it means that literacy and digital literacy are embedded across the curriculum such that students learn and apply literacy skills in all school subjects. Today there is more to learn and more to do in expanded curricula that require sophisticated, complex literacy skills and highly trained teachers who understand such factors and how to provide the best learning experiences for students’ literacy to flourish.

A UNESCO Global Monitoring Report in 2014 investigated the quality of education and the amount of schooling needed to become literate. A survey of the schooling and literacy levels in 41 countries was undertaken. The summary indicates: ‘Analysis confirms the assumption that children need to spend at least four years in school to become literate’ (UNESCO, 2014, p. 34). It also indicates that of the children who spent less than four years in school, over 75% could not read all or part of a sentence. It was also stated that even five or six years in primary school did not guarantee literacy in some countries with low literacy levels overall. Poverty, poor health, low parental education, low quality teaching and low expectations were noted as factors related to reduced literacy levels (UNESCO, 2016).

If a child has a learning difficulty or disability, then the added impact of any of the above influences will compound and increase the time needed to become literate. Students who have difficulty early in their schooling will struggle with Matthew effects, in which poor readers fall further behind while good readers improve rapidly (Stanovich, 1986). Matthew effects increase each year, without appropriate, targeted, intervention (McLachlan et al., 2013). The implementation of numerous early intervention initiatives and programs have resulted in varying degrees of success. Reviews of policies and programs such as Head Start introduced in 1975 and the No Child Left Behind Act from 2001 in the United States of America (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2003); the Literacy Hour in Britain (Machin & McNally, 2004), Close the Gap initiatives in Australia (Turnbull, 2016) and Clay’s Reading Recovery programme from New Zealand (Tunmer, Chapman, Greaney, Prochnow, &...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Part I Literacy, Inclusion and Access to the Curriculum: International Insights
• Part II Improving Student Literacy with Vulnerable Cohorts
• Index