Understanding Service-Learning
Definitions of service-learning vary among those who embrace it. However, at its core, service-learning is a teaching methodology that uses community engagement (service) as a means of assisting students to master academic content (Billig, 2011). Service-learning entails a collaborative enterprise between students and the community that involves explicit learning goals, a response to genuine community needs, youth decision-making, and systematic reflection on the part of the students (Scott & Graham, 2015). Most service within tertiary education falls into one of four categories: direct service that requires personal contact with people in need; indirect experience which involves working on broad issues rather than working directly with individuals; community-based research that entails gathering and presenting information on areas of interest and need; and advocacy where students actively engage in eliminating the causes of a specific problem (Colorado State University, 2016). How service-learning plays out in K-12 can be somewhat different, but tends to involve forms of direct action, indirect experience, and community-based research. Service-learning can be considered as an international phenomenon, operating as a teaching pedagogy in countries such as the United States (Los Angeles County Office of Education, n.d.), Canada (Chambers, 2009), South Africa (Mouton & Wildschut, 2005), Australia (Lavery & Coffey, 2016), China (Gong & Hu, 2011), and various parts of Europe (Luna, 2012), where it is used in universities and colleges, secondary and primary schools, to enhance traditional modes of teaching.
Pivotal to the implementation of service-learning are five interdependent stages: investigation, preparation, action, reflection, and demonstration (Kaye, 2014). Investigation includes both a profile of student interests and abilities, and a social analysis of issues being addressed. Preparation involves identifying a need, investigating and analyzing the need, and making a plan of action. Action is the direct result of preparation where students implement their plan through direct service, indirect service, advocacy, or community-based research. Reflection is ongoing and enables students to consider how the experience, knowledge, and skills they are acquiring relate to their own lives and their communities. Demonstration requires students to exhibit their learned expertise through public exhibitions such as presentations, letters to the editor, and class lessons, whereby students draw on the preparation, action, and reflection stages of their experiences (Chien, 2015; Kaye, 2014).
Four theoretical constructs underpin the basis of service-learning approaches and outcomes: experiential learning, social learning, student development, and liberatory education (Chambers, 2009). Within the service-learning paradigm, experiential learning involves action and reflection, whereby students learn through both the action and the reflection on that action. The actions, moreover, are not those solely of the students. Students collaborate with members of the communities with whom they serve, who specifically stipulate the concerns to be addressed (Chambers, 2009). Social learning theory posits that learning can occur simply by observing the actions of others. Further, it suggests that intrinsic reinforcement in the form of internal rewards such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment can positively affect learning (Cherry, 2016). In the structure of service-learning, such factors are manifest in the action-reflection process where students attempt to make meaning from their interactions within the communities in which they are engaged (Chambers, 2009).
There is an increasing body of evidence which suggests that service-learning experiences can have a significant impact on the development of students. For example, service-learning can positively influence student learning (Billig, 2011; Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011), promote a greater sense of empathy, personal identity, spiritual and moral growth (Scott & Graham, 2015; Winterbottom, Lake, Ethridge, Kelly, & Stubblefield, 2013), enhance interpersonal development, build communication and leadership skills (Cipolle, 2010; Coffey & Lavery, 2015), improve social responsibility and active citizenship (Jerome, 2011; Kaye, 2010), and foster connections with professionals and community members for learning and career opportunities (Brandy, 2016). Furthermore, as a pedagogy, service-learning requires that students expressly take a role in their own development and learning by transcending classrooms in order to actively engage in their communities. Such an approach can enable students to apply academic knowledge and critical thinking skills to meet genuine community needs. Moreover, through teacher-guided reflection, appropriate assessment, and the knowledge that they are making a difference within the community, students are able to gain a deeper understanding of course content, develop their sense of self-efficacy, and begin their future as active citizens (Georgia Southern University, 2014).
Liberatory education is an approach that enables students to identify their strengths and abilities to improve social conditions for themselves and others. Social change within a liberatory education model begins when students develop a sense of their own values, of their concern for a more equitable society, and a willingness to support others in various communities (Chambers, 2009). The connection between liberatory education and service-learning lies in the links between discipline-based learning, individual formation, and community engagement. That is, a critical social consciousness is formed through the study of appropriate literature and social documents in the context of working with those who are disadvantaged (Dorr, 1991; Holland & Henriot, 1983). Through reflection on service undertaken, a depth of learning can emerge which informs theory and effective action for justice (Wallis, 1982). Social justice may not necessarily be the intended outcome of a particular service-learning initiative. However, depending on the service-learning approach within a particular community, there may be various degrees of self and social examination by students, as well as a level of social activism characteristic of liberatory education (Chambers, 2009).
A further development underpinning the approach to service-learning has been the inclusion of a religious and spiritual dimension into some service-learning programs. Commencing in the mid-2000s, various faith-based educational institutions have sought to contextualize service-learning within their specific religious tradition. The result has led to the development of concepts that include Christian service-learning (Catholic Education Western Australia, 2017), Jewish service-learning (Irie & Blair, 2008), and service-learning in an Islamic environment (Shaw, 2017). Educational institutions that operate from a faith-based approach to service-learning generally view the service component as a practical application of the spiritual traditions of that faith. The reflection and learning that occurs as a result of service is situated within the context of that faith’s education and values.
The best service-learning activities are those that emphasize student learning and at the same time address real community needs. The aim is to promote a relationship of mutual benefit between students, faculty, and community partners (Colorado State University, 2016). This approach stands in contrast to other methods of experiential learning such as community service, internships, and various forms of field experience. For example, community service involves students providing assistance directly or indirectly to individuals, organizations, or the community. Direct assistance can take the form of serving soup and bread from an agency van or preparing meals in a shelter for homeless people; indirect assistance can entail raising money for a cause, or clerical work for a service agency. In all these cases, the primary emphasis is providing the service and the primary beneficiary is the service recipient. Conversely, the emphasis in internships and other forms of field experience is on the student and the main beneficiary is the service provider. Service-learning blends the key elements of community service and internships so that both the service providers and the service recipients equally benefit (Anderson, 1998). An important feature of service-learning is that wherever possible those being served should control the service provided and define what the service tasks entail. It is a critical element of service-learning that the needs and the dignity of those being served are respected at all times (Jacoby, 1996).
Service-Learning in Higher Education
Higher education has a rich tradition in the use of service-learning programs. The 1990s saw remarkable growth in service-learning classes on university campuses in the United States (Bringle, Phillips, & Hudson, 2010); subsequently these programs developed on an international scale. Research indicates that service-learning on University and College campuses is a successful pedagogy that can positively impact on students academically, socially, and culturally (Bringle & Hatcher, 1996; Heffernan, 2011; Jenkins & Sheehey, 2012). Pedagogically, service-learning offers tertiary students an opportunity to explore the links between the theory of the classroom and the practical needs of the community.
The vast majority of service-learning programs within the higher education sector take one of three forms: “Pure” service-learning, discipline-based service-learning courses, or problem-based service-learning courses (Heffernan, 2011). Pure service-learning courses send students into the community to serve and have as their intellectual basis the concept and value of service per se. These courses tend to be inter-disciplinary. Discipline-based service-learning usually requires students to have a presence in the community during the semester. Students are expected to regularly reflect on their experiences using course content as a basis for analysis and understanding. Problem-based service-learning necessitates students, or teams of students, responding to a community need. Students work with community members to understand a problem in an attempt to find possible solutions (Heffernan, 2011; Mouton & Wildschut, 2005).
Service-learning in higher education is especially prevalent in the discipline of education where service-learning programs have been used as a means of developing skills and providing real-life experiences for pre-service teachers (Anderson, 1998; Bates, 2009). Examples include the use of service-learning programs in the development of active citizenship (James & Iverson, 2009), values education (Carrington, Mercer, & Kimber, 2010), social awareness (Lavery, 2007), diversity (Glazier, Charpentier, & Boone, 2011), multicultural education (Boyle-Baise, 1998), critical inquiry and reflection (Anderson, 2000), as well as social justice and special needs education (Chambers & Lavery, 2012). Service-learning programs within teacher education usually aim to provide pre-service teachers with hands-on experiences in areas that are potentially outside their comfort zone (Colby, Bercaw, Clarke, & Galiardi, 2009). Moreover, service-learning programs can be applicable to all pre-service teacher courses: early childhood (Lake & Jones, 2008; Swick, 1999), primary (Endo, 2015; Spencer, Cox-Patersen, & Crawford, 2005), and secondary (Coffey & Lavery, 2015; Gannon, 2009).
