An essential text for understanding Socrates, Xenophon's Memorabilia is the compelling tribute of an affectionate student to his teacher, providing a rare firsthand account of Socrates' life and philosophy. The Memorabilia is invaluable both as a work of philosophy in its own right and as a complement to the study of Plato's dialogues. The longest of Xenophon's four Socratic works, it is particularly revealing about the differences between Socrates and his philosophical predecessors. Far more obviously than Plato in the dialogues, Xenophon calls attention in the Memorabilia to his own relationship with Socrates. A colorful and fully engaged writer, Xenophon aims above all to convince his readers of the greatness of Socrates' thought and the disgracefulness of his conviction on a capital charge. In thirty-nine chapters, Xenophon presents Socrates as an ordinary person and as a great benefactor to those associated with him.
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[1]a I often wondered by what possible speeches those who indicted Socrates persuaded the Athenians that he deserved death from the city.1 For the indictment against him was something like the following: Socrates commits an injustice by not believing in2 the gods in which the city believes and by bringing in new3 and different divine things (daimonia);4 he commits an injustice also by corrupting the young.5
[2] To begin with, then, what possible evidence did they use6 to show that he did not believe in the gods in which the city believed? For he visibly sacrificed often at home and often at the common7 altars of the city; and it was not difficult to see him using divination.8 For it had been widely bandied about that Socrates said that the divine thing (to daimonion) gave him signs; and, in my opinion,9 it is especially for this reason that they accused him of bringing in new divine things (daimonia).
[3] But he brought in nothing newer than others who consult (chrēsthai) birds of omen, sayings, portents, and sacrificial victims because they believe in10 divination. For seekers of divination suppose not that the birds or those they meet by chance11 know what is advantageous for them, but that the gods signal what is advantageous through them; and Socrates held the same.
[4] However, while the majority say that they are both turned back and turned forward12 by the birds and by those they meet, Socrates spoke just as he judged, for he said that the divine thing (to daimonion) gave him signs. And he told many of his companions to do some things and not to do others on the grounds that the divine thing (to daimonion) had given a sign. And it was advantageous for those who obeyed13 him, while those who did not obey regretted it.
[5] And yet who would not agree that he wished to appear to his companions as neither a simpleton nor a boaster? But he would have been held by opinion to be both these things if it had been apparent that in fact he was lying when he told them that things appeared to him as though from a god. It is clear, then, that he would not have foretold these things unless he trusted that he was speaking the truth. But who would trust anyone in these matters other than a god? And trusting in gods, how could he hold that there are no gods?
[6] Moreover, he also did the following with regard to his friends.14 He advised regarding the necessary things that they also act as he held best. But concerning things whose outcomes were not clear, he sent them to seek divination about whether they should be done.15
[7] And he said that those intending to manage households and cities nobly16 are in need of divination in addition. For, with regard to becoming skillful as a builder, a smith, a farmer, a ruler of human beings, a reviewer of such work,17 an arithmetician, a household manager, or a general, he held that things of this sort are all matters of learning and attainable by means of human judgment.
[8] But what is most important in these things, he said that the gods reserve for themselves—and none of these things is clear to human beings. For, to the one who has nobly planted a field, it is not clear who will reap from it; nor to the one who has nobly built a house is it clear who will inhabit it; nor to the skilled general is it clear whether to lead the army is to his advantage; nor to the skilled statesman18 is it clear whether to preside over the city is to his advantage; nor to the one marrying a beautiful19 woman in order to be happy is it clear whether he will be grieved because of her; nor to the one who has obtained by marriage relatives who are powerful in the city is it clear whether he will be deprived of his city because of them.
[9] And he said that those who think that there is nothing divine (daimonion) in matters of this sort and that they are wholly within the realm of human judgment are crazy (daimonan).20 And he said that those are crazy also who consult divination concerning matters the gods gave to human beings to decide by learning—for example, if one should inquire into whether it is better to take on a chariot someone who understands or does not understand how to drive, or whether better to take on a ship someone who understands or does not understand how to pilot, or into things that can be known by counting, measuring, or weighing. He believed that those who seek to ascertain such things from the gods do what is unlawful.21 And he said that what the gods permit to be done by those who have learned, one should learn, but that what is not clear to human beings one should try to ascertain from the gods through divination, for the gods give signs to those toward whom they are gracious.
[10] Moreover, he was always visible. For in the early morning he used to go on walks and to the gymnasia,22 and when the agora23 was full he was visible there, and for the remainder of the day he was always where he might be with the most people. And he spoke for the majority of the time, and it was possible for anyone who wished to hear him.
[11] But no one ever saw Socrates doing, or heard him saying, anything impious or unholy.24 For he did not converse about the nature of all things in the way most of the others did—examining what the sophists25 call the cosmos:26 how it is,b and which necessities are responsible for the coming to be of each of the heavenly things.27 But he even showed that those who worry28 about things of this sort are foolish.
[12] First, he examined whether they came to worry about such matters because they held that they already knew the human things sufficiently,29 or whether they believed that they were acting properly in disregarding the human things and in examining the divine things (daimonia).
[13] And he wondered whether it was not visible to them that it is impossible for human beings to find these things out, since he thought that30 even those who most pride themselves on speaking about them do not hold the same opinions as one another but are disposed toward one another like madmen.
[14] For, among madmen, some have no terror even of what is terrible, while others are frightened even by what is not frightening; and some are of the opinion that it is not shameful to do or say anything whatsoever, even in a crowd, while others are of the opinion that one should not even go out among human beings; and some honor neither temple nor altar nor any other divine thing (theios), while others behave piously toward even rocks and chance pieces of wood and beasts; and, among those who are anxious about the nature of all things, some are of the opinion that being is one thing only, and others that it is an infinite multitude; and some that everything is always moving, and others that nothing ever moves; and some that everything comes to be and perishes, and others that nothing ever comes to be or perishes.
[15] And he examined also the following about them. Just as those who learn human matters believe that they will do31 what they learn both for themselves and for anyone else they wish, so, too, those who seek out the divine things (ta theia) hold that after they understand the necessities responsible for each thing coming to be they will make winds, rains, seasons, and anything else of the sort they need whenever they wish. Or they do not even hope for such a thing, but it is enough for them merely to understand in what way each of the things of this sort comes to be.
[16] These, then, are the sorts of things he said concerning those who involved themselves in such matters. But he himself was always conversing about human things—examining what is pious, what is impious, what is noble, what is shameful, what is just, what is unjust, what is moderation, what is madness, what is courage, what is cowardice, what is a city, what is a statesman, what is rule over human beings, what is a skilled ruler over human beings, as well as about the other things, knowledge of which he believed makes one a gentleman (noble and good),32 while those who are ignorant of them would justly be called slavish.
[17] Now, in the sphere of things in which it was not visible how he thought, it is no wonder that the jurors erred in judging him. But isn’t it a wonder that they didn’t take to heart what everyone knew?
[18] He once presided in the demos,33 having become a member of the Council34 and having sworn the councilors’ oath, which contains “giving counsel according to the laws.”35 At that time the demos desired to put to death all nine generals—Thrasyllus and Erasinides and those with them—with one vote, contrary to the laws.36 He did not want to put the question to vote, although the demos grew angry with him and many powerful individuals threatened him as well. But he thought more highly of keeping his oath than of gratifying the demos contrary to what was just and protecting himself against those who threatened him.37
[19] For in fact he held that the gods attend to human beings not in the way that the many38 held. For they think that the gods know some things and do not know others. But Socrates believed that the gods know all things—what is said, what is done, and what is silently deliberated—and that they are present everywhere and give signs to human beings about all human matters.
[20] And so I wonder at how the Athenians were ever persuaded that Socrates was not moderate concerning the gods, since not once did he say or do anything impious concerning the gods, but he said and did regarding the gods the sorts of things that if someone were to say or do them he would be and be held to be most pious.
Chapter 2
[1] It appears to me a wonder also that some were persuaded that Socrates corrupted the young. To begin with, in addition to what has been said, he was the most continent39 of all human beings in matters of sex and appetite. Then, he had the greatest endurance with regard to winter, summer, and all labors.40 Moreover, he had educated himself41 to have such measured needs that, although he possessed very little, he quite easily had what was enough for him.
[2] How, then, being himself of this sort, would he have made others impious, lawbreaking, gluttonous, incontinent with regard to sex, or soft with regard to labor? Instead, he rid many individuals of these things, after making them desire virtue and providing them with hopes that if they attended to themselves they would be gentlemen (noble and good).
[3] And yet, he never promised at any time to be a teacher of this. But by visibly being so himself, he made those who spent time with him hope that by imitating him they would come to be of the same sort.
[4] Furthermore, he did not himself neglect his body or praise those who did. He disapproved of...
