Racial Discrimination and Private Education

A Legal Analysis

Arthur S. Miller

• Publisher: The University of North Carolina Press
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9780807879689
• Topic: Jura
• Subtopic: Diskriminierungsgesetz

Miller discusses the possible governmental sanctions against integration and the possible ways in which the guarantees of the First and Fourteenth Amendments might be sought and obtained for private schools. He also analyzes the possible effects of discriminatory administrative enforcement of laws as a weapon against integration and the use of and protection against extra-legal sanctions. Originally published in 1957. A UNC Press Enduring Edition -- UNC Press Enduring Editions use the latest in digital technology to make available again books from our distinguished backlist that were previously out of print. These editions are published unaltered from the original, and are presented in affordable paperback formats, bringing readers both historical and cultural value.

CHAPTER ONETHE PRIVATE SCHOOL SYSTEM IN AMERICA

LARGELY NEGLECTED in the swirl of controversy that has developed since the May 17, 1954, decision of the Supreme Court in the Segregation Cases¹ is the private school and its position in the pattern of educational racial discrimination. Attention has been focused almost exclusively upon the public school systems and their administration, and, to a lesser extent, upon the announced plans of some states to establish a subsidized system of private schools as a means of avoiding the impact of the segregation decision. But the privately operated school in the southeastern United States, whether denominational or otherwise, has not escaped difficulty; it has not been able to avoid dealing with the same type of problems besetting the public school administrator. The specific manner in which the problems have arisen may differ but the broad pattern is basically similar. These difficulties, revolving around the admission practices of the nonpublic school, are both complex and important; they merit comprehensive development and exposition. It is my purpose here to attempt such a development and exposition; particular emphasis will be placed upon the legal problems that are involved.

Required first of all is a preliminary inquiry into the social and legal context in which the private school administrator operates. What place does the private school occupy in American education today? What is the legal status of the private school? It is to these questions that our attention will first be directed. The discussion will be concerned with the bona fide private school as it has been known and not with the so-called private school plans announced by some Southern government officials during the past two years.² The term “private school” will be used generically to indicate both the denominational (parochial) school and the nonsectarian school.

THE PLACE OF NONPUBLIC EDUCATION

Private, i.e., nonpublic, education has long held an important place in the scheme of American education. This is particularly true of higher education: the private colleges and universities have always enrolled a high percentage, usually a majority, of the nation's youth who have gone on beyond high school. And it is also true of elementary and secondary education, although here the public schools have for many years educated a much greater number. With education itself considered a matter of vital societal importance, perhaps crucial to the survival of the democratic system, the private schools have ably performed significant functions. The belief structure of the American people includes the notion that education has importance beyond the individual being educated—the public weal itself is considered to be dependent upon education conducted upon the broadest possible base. Disagreement with education is only over the details: how it is to be accomplished, not if it is. As the late Senator Robert Taft once remarked, we have “socialized education” in this country.

This is, it should be remembered, a belief relatively new in history. Universal education, like universal suffrage, is apparently a creature of the new world, and one that came rather late even there.³ It exists, so the theory goes, to promote the general intelligence of the people and thus to increase their usefulness and efficiency. The aim is to provide a reasonably adequate grasp of the relevant facts important in the making of societal decisions together with a reasonably adequate training in thinking about and evaluating those facts.⁴ The American people have consistently believed (with a minor exception no longer of consequence) that the ends to be achieved by mass education could be accomplished through the medium of school systems both publicly and privately controlled. However, as will be shown below, the people generally have reserved the right to insure that private schools maintain standards similar to those established for the public schools. This right has not always been exercised; nevertheless, it is available for use should the need arise.⁵

Statistically, of course, the public school today greatly overwhelms the nonpublic. Of the 163,673 schools in existence in the academic year 1951-52 only 15,316 were private. Of this total, there were 10,666 elementary schools, 3,322 secondary schools, 137 residential schools for exceptional children, and 1,191 higher educational schools controlled privately. Compare these figures with those of the public schools for the same year: 123,763 elementary schools, 23,746 secondary, 307 residential for exceptional children, and 641 colleges and universities. Only in the higher educational bracket does the private school outnumber the public.

The same ratio holds true for enrollment. Out of a total school enrollment of 32,934,748 in 1951-52, about 15 percent (4,994,116) of the students attended private schools. This figure breaks down in this manner: about 13 percent (3,168,822 out of a total of 23,958,113) at the elementary level, 10 percent (678,967 out of a total of 6,596,351) at the secondary level, and 50 percent (1,146,327 out of a total of 2,380,284) in higher education.⁶It is of particular interest to note a significant increase in private school enrollment, both absolutely and in comparison with the public schools, since the academic year of 1939-40. At that time 25,433,542 pupils were enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools and 2,611,047 in private schools—roughly one student in a private school to nine in the public schools. The figures for 1951-52 are 26,706,675 and 3,847,789—about one to seven. In 1955-56 it is estimated that the figures are 32,026,000 and 4,469,900—again, about one to seven. In absolute figures, elementary and secondary private school enrollments since 1939-40 have increased about 1,858,900 or nearly 71 percent, while public school enrollments have increased about 6,592,000 or nearly 26 percent. Thus, although the public school still greatly overshadows the private school quantitatively, the clear trend at the elementary and secondary school level is toward greater use by parents of the nonpublic school. As noted above, the private school already is used by more students than the public at the level of higher education. While the trend is clear, the reasons for this change are not so readily apparent and are probably multiple rather than single. Increased prosperity among people generally would allow more parents to send their children to the private school; also, the disquietude with the educational standards of many public schools, which is evident among many people, would tend to explain some of the increase in enrollment of the private schools. It is yet too early to determine whether racial integration since the Supreme Court's decision will cause any significant exodus from the newly-desegregated public schools to the private schools.⁷

In the sixteen states and District of Columbia which can be considered as making up the South, there are 53,568 public schools (43,259 elementary, 9,971 secondary, 115 for exceptional children, and 223 colleges and universities) and 2,950 private schools (1,786 elementary, 766 secondary, 22 for exceptional children, and 376 colleges and universities). Comparative enrollment statistics for Southern schools were unobtainable.

One other statistic is of interest: income in the academic year of 1951-52 was $11.7 billion for all schools, public and private and at all levels. Of this figure, $9.3 billion (79 percent) went to the public school systems, and $2.4 billion (21 percent) to the private. Thus, 21 percent of school income went to educate 15 percent of the nation's students. To the extent that monetary expenditures reflect a higher quality of education, the student at the private school is getting more and better education than the public school pupil.

THE LEGAL STATUS OF NONPUBLIC EDUCATION

Relatively rare, but nevertheless important, have been the cases decided by the United States Supreme Court in the field of education.⁸ A handful have dealt with the admission practices of public schools; in another few the Court has made pronouncements on the relationship of religion to the public school systems; and there have been other educational matters that have raised questions relating to the federal Constitution. Similarly, Congress has made but few interventions in education, and these have been in aid of local education rather than attempts to control the details of educational administration. It can be said that the educational system has, by and large, satisfied national, as distinguished from purely local, requirements. If not, substantial federal intervention would undoubtedly have taken place long ago. One of the reasons for the current increased congressional concern in education, manifested in the proposed massive school building program, is the belief that national ends are not being achieved under the present system. The shortage of engineers and other technicians is one item of this federal concern, the belief being that our national security is imperiled by such a shortage.

Because of the lack of substantial federal intervention in education, a comprehensive inquiry into the legal status of private education must, perforce, be directed for the most part to state statutes and state court decisions. The United States Supreme Court has made only two decisions of any real importance to private schools: Pierce v. Society of Sisters⁹ and Meyer v. Nebraska.¹⁰ Of the two the Pierce case is probably the more significant. Since it was rendered in 1925 it is clear that parents may fulfill a state's educational requirements without use of the public school system. In other words, the right to send children to private schools was given constitutional protection.

Little else is settled regarding the extent of state authority over the nonpublic school. That the state may exercise some control is clear. However, the line between permissible control and that which is proscribed constitutionally has not yet been drawn. This lack of settlement may be traced, in part at least, to the fundamental disagreement over the theory of child control. The difference of opinion has its roots in antiquity; it can be traced at least as far back as Platonic times. The relevant question is this: Who, parent or state, has primary power over the education of the child? The question receives differing answers. While there are isolated judicial statements to the contrary, in addition to a great deal of opinion from church groups (chiefly Roman Catholic), it has been generally held by American courts that the state, not the parents, is pre-eminent. From this basic view courts have adhered to the position that the wishes of society, operating through the state governments, can control in basic educational matters even in those situations where the parents are in direct opposition. This, and the reasons for it, were succinctly put by the Supreme Court of New Hampshire:

The primary purpose of the maintenance of the common school system is the promotion of the general intelligence of the people constituting the body politic and thereby to increase the usefulness and efficiency of the citizens, upon which the government of society depends. Free schooling furnished by the state is not so much a right granted to pupils as a duty imposed upon them for the public good. If they do not voluntarily attend the schools provided for them, they may be compelled to do so. While most people regard the public schools as the means of great personal advantage to the pupils, the fact is too often overlooked that they are governmental means of protecting the state from the consequences of an ignorant and incompetent citizenship.¹¹

But even so, as the Pierce case demonstrates, the state may not require attendance at public schools if parents wish to send their children to private schools. The state may not, in other words, legislate the private school out of existence. The language used by Mr. Justice McReynolds in Pierce bears striking resemblance to that of religious organizations, and illustrates, when compared to the New Hampshire case the conflict in basic theory. In an opinion that invalidated, because it was considered to be violative of due process of law, an Oregon statute requiring children of the ages of eight to sixteen to attend public schools, Justice McReynolds said:

We think it entirely plain that the Act of 1922 unreasonably interferes with the liberty of parents and guardians to direct the upbringing and education of children under their control. … The fundamental theory of liberty upon which all governments of this Union repose excludes any general power of the State to standardize its children by forcing them to accept instruction from public teachers only. The child is not the mere creature of the State; those who nurture him and direct his destiny have the right, coupled with the high duty, to recognize and prepare him for additional obligations.

Similar statements may be quoted to indicate the position of the Roman Catholic church. For example, in 1946, it was said that the state's “role in education is in reality secondary and supplementary to that of the home,” and further that “the concept of the primary rights of parents in education is not only legally basic to the American system of schools, but fundamentally vital to the existence of our democracy.” According to this view, “the function of the state in education is, not to monopolize and control the schools, but to protect and assist the parents in the fulfillment of their obligation to provide adequate educational opportunities for their children.”¹²

However, it seems to be generally accepted, in statute and decision by legislature and court alike, that the language of Justice McReynolds is not to be considered as stating the predominant theory of child control and education. It is society generally, operating through the state governments, that has primary control—that has the right to prescribe the minimum standards of education the child should have. Education of all the youthful is a matter of vital public concern. The very foundations of the democratic system of government are believed to depend, in substantial measure at least, upon the existence of a literate, knowledgeable citizenry. More than that, the very survival of the United States as a nation is thought to be keyed to the availability of a continuing flow of trained technical specialists from the nation's school systems to places in industry and related areas. Known shortages of trained engineers, for example, is a matter of great concern today. Other areas exist in which the demand for competent manpower exceeds the supply.¹³

Thus it is for two reasons that education is of major public concern and cannot be left to the individual choice of the parents of the child. Whereas, when viewed historically, mass education has been the ideal and the goal, today it has become a necessity. The time is past when the nation can afford a large group of partial or complete illiterates. We have entered a period in which the machine has either replaced or is replacing the untrained human being, both in the manual tasks and in the menial mental tasks. An incredibly rapid technological change has, in the space of a few years, done away with the need for the untrained and unskilled and has scarcely any place for the slightly trained. At the same time, an enormous demand has been created for the technician, for the person of technical ability, for the slide-rule operator who can handle and perhaps even understand the machines he manipulates. All of this means that education has become more than a luxury for the betterment of the individual by providing a means to improve his status; it has become a necessity witho...