The Shorter Writings

Xenophon, Gregory A. McBrayer

• Publisher: Cornell University Press
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN: 9781501718496
• eBook ISBN: 9781501718526
• Topic: Philosophy
• Subtopic: Ancient & Classical Literary Criticism

This book contains new, annotated, and literal yet accessible translations of Xenophon’s eight shorter writings, accompanied by interpretive essays that reveal these works to be masterful achievements by a serious thinker of the first rank who raises important moral, political, and philosophical questions. 

Five of these shorter writings are unmistakably devoted to political matters. The Agesilaos is a eulogy of a Spartan king, and the Hiero, or the Skilled Tyrant recounts a searching dialogue between a poet and a tyrant. The Regime of the Lacedaemonians presents itself as a laudatory examination of what turns out to be an oligarchic regime of a certain type, while The Regime of the Athenians offers an unflattering picture of a democratic regime. Ways and Means, or On Revenues offers suggestions on how to improve the political economy of Athens’ troubled democracy.

The other three works included here—The Skilled Cavalry Commander, On Horsemanship, and The One Skilled at Hunting with Dogs—treat skills deemed appropriate for soldiers and leaders, touching on matters of political importance, especially in regard to war. By bringing together Xenophon’s shorter writings, this volume aims to help those interested in Xenophon to better understand the core of his thought, political as well as philosophical.

Interpretive essays by: Wayne Ambler, Robert C. Bartlett, Amy L. Bonnette, Susan D. Collins, Michael Ehrmantraut, David Levy, Gregory A. McBrayer, Abram N. Shulsky.

CHAPTER 1
Hiero, or The Skilled Tyrant

TRANSLATED BY DAVID K. O’CONNOR

CHAPTER 1

(1) Simonides the poet once visited Hiero the tyrant.¹ When both had some leisure, Simonides said, “Would you be willing, Hiero, to tell me about something it is likely you know better than I?”

“And what sort of thing could it be,” said Hiero, “that I could know better than you, who are so wise a man?”²

(2) “I know you used to be a private person and are now a tyrant; since you have experienced both, you are likely to know better than I how the tyrannical life and the private life are distinguished in the enjoyments and pains of human beings.”³

(3) “Well,” said Hiero, “why don’t you, since for now at least you are still a private person, remind me of what goes on in the private life? That way I think I would best be able to make clear to you what distinguishes each from the other.”

(4) Simonides gave this reply: “I believe, Hiero, that I have noticed private persons being pleased and bothered by things seen through the eyes, by things heard through the ears, by smells through the nose, by foods and drinks through the mouth—and as for sex,⁴ we all know through what. (5) As for things cold and hot and hard and soft and light and heavy, I believe it is with the whole body that we judge of being pleased or pained by them. By things good and bad, we are sometimes pleased and pained through the soul by itself, I believe, and sometimes through both the soul⁵ and the body in common. (6) That we are pleased by sleep, I have perceived, I believe; but of how and through what and when,” he said, “I believe I am somehow more ignorant. And perhaps it isn’t surprising if experiences while we’re awake provide us with clearer perceptions than experiences in sleep.”

(7) To these things Hiero answered: “I for my part,” he said, “would not be able to mention anything the tyrant might perceive other than the things you have just related. So at least up to this point, I do not know if in anything the tyrannical life is distinguished from the private life.”

(8) And Simonides spoke: “But in this,” he said, “it is distinguished: it enjoys many more things through each of these, and has many fewer of the painful things.”

And Hiero said, “That is not how these things stand, Simonides, but know well that tyrants have much less enjoyment than private persons who live within measure, and have many more and much greater pains.”

(9) “What you are saying is incredible,” said Simonides. “For if things were that way, how could many desire to be tyrants, with this applying even to those believed to be men of great capacity? How could everyone be emulous⁶ of tyrants?”

(10) “Because, by Zeus,” said Hiero, “they are considering the issue without experience of both activities. But I will try to teach you that the things I am saying are true, starting from sight—for I believe I remember you too starting to speak from there. (11) First, when I reflect on the spectacles contemplated through sight, I find the tyrants get less.⁷ There are different spectacles worth contemplating in different places, and private persons can travel to each of them, and to whichever cities they want, for the sake of spectacles, and also to the common festivals,⁸ where the spectacles human beings believe are most worth contemplating are gathered together. (12) But the tyrants have little to do with contemplating. For it is not safe for them to go where they will not be stronger than those who will be present, nor are their possessions at home so secure that they can turn them over to others to go on a trip. For it is to be feared that they might both be deprived of the rule and become powerless to take revenge on those who perpetrate the injustice. (13) Now perhaps you will say, ‘But things of this sort come to them while they remain at home.’ But, by Zeus, Simonides, only a few of the many, and these are at such a price to the tyrants that the exhibitioners, whatever they present, expect to leave the tyrant after getting much more in a short time than they obtain in their entire life from the rest of human beings.”

(14) And Simonides said, “But if you⁹ get less of spectacles, surely through hearing you get more, since of the most pleasant thing to hear, praise, you are never in short supply. For all in attendance on you praise whatever you say and whatever you do. And the harshest thing to hear, blame, you do not hear; for no one is willing to accuse a tyrant before his eyes.”

(15) “And how do you think,” Hiero said, “those who say nothing bad can be enjoyed when one knows clearly that these silent persons are all thinking of nothing but bad things for the tyrant? And how do you believe those who praise can be enjoyed when they are under the suspicion of feigning their praises for the sake of flattery?”

(16) And Simonides said, “This indeed, by Zeus, I for my part certainly concede to you, Hiero: that the praises of those who are most free are the most pleasant. But look, you still could not persuade any human being of this: that, regarding the things through which we human beings are nourished, you do not have much more enjoyment.”

(17) “I do know, Simonides,” he said, “that most people judge us to drink and eat more pleasantly than private persons, because they believe they would also themselves dine more pleasantly on the food served to us than that served to them. For it is what exceeds the habitual things that provides pleasures. (18) Thus all human beings anticipate with pleasure the feasts, except tyrants; since their tables are always abundantly provisioned, there is no special addition to them for feasts. So in the first place, they get less than private persons of this enjoyment of expectation. (19) And furthermore,” he said, “I know well—and you too have experienced—that to the extent one is served luxuries beyond what would be sufficient, by so much does satiety more quickly take over the feasting. So also in the duration of pleasure, one served many things gets less than those who have a measured regimen.”

(20) “But, by Zeus,” said Simonides, “for so long as the soul is eager, so long do those nourished by expensive provisions have much more pleasure than those served inexpensive ones.”

(21) “Well, Simonides,” said Hiero, “do you think that he who is especially pleased by something has the most erotic interest¹⁰ in the activity concerning it?”

“Surely,” he said.

“Well, do you see tyrants going to their own provisions with any more pleasure than private persons to theirs?”

“No, by Zeus,” he said, “not at all, but rather with less interest, as many believe.”

(22) “And then,” said Hiero, “have you noticed these many contrivances that are set before tyrants, acid and bitter and astringent and things akin to these?”

“Surely,” said Simonides, “and I very much believe these to be against nature for human beings.”

(23) “Then do you think,” said Hiero, “these foods are anything but the objects of desire of a soul made soft and weak? For I at least know well that those who eat with pleasure—and you surely know it too—have no need for these additional sophistications.”¹¹

(24) “And surely,” said Simonides, “these expensive scents with which you are anointed are enjoyed more by those nearby, I think, than by you yourselves, just as offensive scents are not perceived by the one who has eaten, but rather by those nearby.”

(25) “And it is this way,” said Hiero, “with foods: he who always has all sorts takes none of them with longing, while it is he who is in short supply of something who with satisfaction gets his fill, when it happens to appear before him.”

(26) “Perhaps it turns out,” said Simonides, “that only the enjoyments of sex produce the desires in you to be tyrants. For in this, it is open to you to have intercourse with¹² whatever you see that is most beautiful.”¹³

(27) “Now, indeed,” said Hiero, “you have spoken of a matter in which, know clearly, we get less than private persons. First, in the case of marriage, surely one with those superior in wealth and power is believed to be finest, and to provide an honor to the groom that comes with pleasure. Second is one with those who are similar; while a marriage with those who are inferior is held to be very dishonorable and worthless. (28) Now the tyrant, unless he marries a foreigner, of necessity must marry with those inferior. Thus what satisfies does not easily come to him. In addition, the attentions of the proudest¹⁴ women are much the most enjoyable, while the attentions of slaves are not at all satisfying when they are given, and produce terrible anger and pains if they are at all lacking. (29) As for sex with boys,¹⁵ the tyrant gets still less of enjoyments [compared to private persons] than with child-producing sex. For we all surely know that sex accompanied by erotic longing provides a very distinguished enjoyment. (30) But erotic longing¹⁶ is not at all willing to arise in the tyrant, since erotic longing aims at the pleasures provided not by persons at one’s disposal, but by those who are objects of one’s hopes. Just as one who has no experience of thirst cannot enjoy drinking, so he who has no experience of erotic longing has no experience of the greatest pleasures of sex.”

(31) So said Hiero. But Simonides laughed. “What are you saying, Hiero?” he said. “Do you deny that erotic longing for boys naturally springs up in a tyrant? What about,” he said, “your erotic love for Dailochus, who is called most beautiful?”

(32) “Because, by Zeus,” he said, “Simonides, it is not what seems at my disposal that I most desire to get from him, but rather what it is inappropriate for a tyrant to attempt by superior power. (33) For indeed, I have an erotic interest in Dailochus, for exactly those things nature perhaps forces human beings to ask from the beautiful. But these things that I have an erotic longing to get I very strongly desire to get with friendship¹⁷ and from someone who is willing; to take them by force from him I desire less, I believe, than to do something bad to myself. (34) For with enemies, I hold the pleasantest of all things is to take from them when they are unwilling; but with boys, I think the most pleasant favors come when they want to give them. (35) For example, from one who returns love, pleasant are the exchanged gazes, pleasant the questionings, pleasant the replies; and most pleasant and sexually arousing the fights and quarrels. (36) But to enjoy unwilling boys is more like robbery, I believe,” he said, “than sex. Though at least robbery provides some pleasures in the profit and the harming of an enemy. But to get pleasure from someone whom one erotically longs for when that person is being hurt, and to be hated when one loves, or to be bothersome when one touches: how could this not be a distressing and pathetic experience? (37) And indeed for the private person there is direct proof, whenever the object of his erotic longing renders some service, that the erotic object gratifies him out of love, since he knows that there is no necessity for the service; but the tyrant can never trust that he is loved. For we know those who render service out of fear liken themselves as much as they can to the services of those who love. Indeed, the plots against tyrants arise from none more than those who make a pretense of loving them most.”

CHAPTER 2

(1) To these things Simonides said, “Well, I for my part believe all these things you are talking about to be very small. For many,” he said, “who are believed to be men I at least see willingly getting less of foods and drinks and delicacies—and sex too, keeping themselves away from it. (2) But it is in the following that you are very much distinguished from private persons: you make great plans, and accomplish them swiftly; you have many luxuries, and possess horses distinguished in virtue, weapons distinguished in beauty, outstanding ornament for women, the most magnificent houses, and these furnished with things of great value; further you possess a multitude of knowledgeable servants, the best, and you are most capable of harming enemies and benefiting friends.”

(3) To these things Hiero said, “That the multitude of human beings, Simonides, is deceived by tyranny does not surprise me. For the mob, I believe, guesses merely by what it sees that some are happy and others wretched. (4) Tyranny spreads out for all to see and contemplate a wide display of those possessions believed of much value; but as for the difficulties tyranny possesses, they are hidden away in the souls of tyrants—which is just where being happy and being unhappy lie for human beings. (5) Now, that this escapes the multitude does not, as I said, surprise me. But that you¹⁸ too are ignorant of these things, you who are believed to contemplate most affairs more finely, using your judgment rather than your eyes, this I believe is surprising. (6) But from experience I know clearly, Simonides, and tell you, that tyrants share least in the greatest goods and possess most of the greatest bad things. (7) For example, if peace is believed to be a great good for human beings, it is least shared by tyrants. And if war is a great bad thing, tyrants have the greatest share of this. (8) For example, it is possible for private persons, unles...

Table of contents

• Editor’s Introduction
• Chapter 1 Hiero, or The Skilled Tyrant
• An Introduction to the Hiero
• Chapter 2 Agesilaus
• An Introduction to the Agesilaus
• Chapter 3 Regime of the Lacedaemonians
• An Introduction to the Regime of the Lacedaemonians
• Chapter 4 Regime of the Athenians
• An Introduction to the Regime of the Athenians
• Chapter 5 Ways and Means, or On Revenues
• An Introduction to the Ways and Means
• Chapter 6 The Skilled Cavalry Commander
• An Introduction to The Skilled Cavalry Commander
• Chapter 7 On Horsemanship
• An Introduction to On Horsemanship
• Chapter 8 The One Skilled at Hunting with Dogs
• An Introduction to The One Skilled at Hunting with Dogs
• Notes
• Index