Old Testament History

John H. Sailhamer

• Publisher: Zondervan
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9780310877578
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Biblical Biography

In brief sections, this book gives an overview of the Old Testament of the Bible—from the primeval history to the period after the Babylonian captivity.

When busy people want to know more about the Bible and the Christian faith, the Zondervan Quick-Reference Library offers an instant information alternative in a manageable length. Covering the basics of the faith and Bible knowledge in an easy-to-use format, this series helps new Christians and seasoned believers alike find answers to their questions about Christianity and the Bible.

The information in Old Testament History is presented in units of one or two pages, so that each section can be read in a few minutes, covering:

• The creation account.
• The patriarchal history.
• The Exodus and Israel in the desert.
• The Judges and the united monarchy.
• The divided kingdoms.
• The Babylonian exile.
• The Intertestamental period.

The Zondervan Quick-Reference Library makes important knowledge affordable, accessible, and easy to understand for busy people who don't have a lot of time to read or study.

The Divided Kingdoms: Israel and Judah

The Division of the Kingdom

God had made a covenant with David (2 Sam. 7:16), in which he promised that David’s kingdom would endure forever and that an unbroken succession of sons, beginning with Solomon, would rule after him. Implicit in God’s promise was a messianic promise of an eternal Davidic kingship.

There were, however, occasions when the legitimacy of the house of David was challenged. Already during Solomon’s reign rebellion broke out in the land, spearheaded by Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, from the tribe of Ephraim (1 Kings 11:26). Being an Ephraimite, Jeroboam could lay claim to tribal privileges that reached back into the most ancient traditions. The tribe of Ephraim was of the house of Joseph, which had been blessed by God (Gen. 48:15–20; 49:22–26) and was promised a seed that would become a “group of nations” (48:19). Both Joshua and Gideon were from the house of Joseph. During the process of restoring the city of Jerusalem, Solomon noted Jeroboam’s leadership ability and appointed him over the house of Joseph. At about the same time, Jeroboam was confronted by the prophet Ahijah (1 Kings 11:29), who told him that the Lord had chosen him as king of the ten northern tribes. Those tribes were to be taken away from Solomon’s kingdom (11:31), though God would preserve for the house of David one tribe (11:32). That tribe was apparently the tribe of Benjamin, which the Lord preserved for David’s tribe, Judah.

Solomon responded to Jeroboam’s rebellion by seeking to kill him. Jeroboam fled to Egypt and found refuge with the Egyptian king Shishak until Solomon’s death. Historians believe Shishak gave asylum to Solomon’s enemy because he hoped one day to regain Egyptian control over that part of his kingdom.

After Solomon’s death, the ten northern tribes initially recognized Rehoboam, Solomon’s son, as his successor, but they insisted he lighten the load that Solomon had imposed on them (1 Kings 12:4). Foolishly, Rehoboam refused to listen and was thus rejected by the northern tribes (12:15–16). The result was the division of the kingdom. Jeroboam returned from exile and was made king, and Rehoboam ruled only over the tribes of Judah and Benjamin (12: 20–21). There were serious spiritual consequences to the loss of the Davidic kingdom. Jerusalem, the place where God was to be worshiped, was no longer accessible to all the people of Israel. Jeroboam, the king of the northern tribes of Israel, built two new worship sites within the boundaries of his kingdom—one at Bethel, along the southern border, and the other at Dan, along his northern border. Jeroboam also established a new priesthood and set up idols.

Rehoboam

Not only were the spiritual consequences of the division of David’s kingdom great, so were the political and economic consequences. The Aramean states to the north of David’s kingdom were able to develop on their own into a formidable force. Within a short period of time they became a serious threat to both Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Moreover, Ammon and Moab, to the east of both the kingdoms, gained their independence and posed a serious threat. Such a shift in the balance of power in the region affected trade relations and thus had a serious impact on the overall economic security of both Israel and Judah.

The Bible gives few specific details about the reign of Rehoboam. During his lifetime Judah fell into grievous sins (1 Kings 14:22–24), for the king established “high places, sacred stones and Asherah poles on every high hill and under every spreading tree.” These were signs of false worship. “High places” were mounds of stone where altars were set up for worship; they were commonly used in Canaanite worship. “Sacred stones” and “Asherah poles” are associated in the Bible with the high places. The “sacred stone” was a stone pillar erected to represent a deity; it was not a image or idol as such, but a symbol of a god. The “Asherah pole” was a wooden post or stake that represented a female deity at the high places. At times these poles were identified with special trees planted at or near a sacred site. The Bible frequently refers to these high places as situated in the shade of a grove of flourishing green trees.

The Bible does not tell us to what extent the Israelites took over the Canaanite religious beliefs and practices during their periods of great sin and apostasy. However, it is clear that the high places and all that went with them angered God. In times of revival they were torn down and destroyed (2 Kings 18:4; 23:1–15). Israel’s prophets frequently railed against these high places (Jer. 7:31; Hos. 10:8; Amos 7:9). The writer of the book of Kings condemns every king in Israel and Judah, except Hezekiah and Josiah, for not destroying the high places.

Also during Rehoboam’s reign over Judah, the kingdom was invaded and decimated by the Egyptian king Shishak (1 Kings 14:25). This was an act of divine judgment. Shishak, a Libyan, had come to power in Egypt in 945 B.C. and was anxious to extend Egypt’s rule again into Palestine. We know from archaeological remains of his battles as well as Shishak’s own inscription that he wreaked havoc on Israel and Judah. Many of the strong fortifications that Rehoboam had built in Judah (2 Chron. 11:5–12) were destroyed at this time. Once Shishak had decimated the two kingdoms, he had to return to solve problems of his own in Egypt.

Jeroboam

When he broke away from the Davidic kingdom in Judah, Jeroboam was afraid that his subjects would reassert their previous loyalties to the house of David if they continued to worship God in Jerusalem, the city God had ordained as the throne of his eternal kingdom. To prevent his subjects from going annually to Jerusalem, Jeroboam built two centers of worship within his own borders—one at Bethel in the south, the other at Dan in the far north. This was a grievous sin (1 Kings 12:30), for it violated the central tenet of Israel’s covenant with God and exposed the people to the dangers of idolatry. As if to increase that danger, Jeroboam set up two golden calves (12:28), apparently in imitation of the one fashioned by Aaron in the Sinai desert (Ex. 32:4)—surely a blatant affront to the law of Moses.

What motivated Jeroboam to carry out such a disastrous scheme? Perhaps Jeroboam was attempting to unite a wide variety of beliefs in his realm, including some of the Canaanite people. Or perhaps Jeroboam did not intend the images to be worshiped, but only to represent the throne or pedestal of God. The book of Kings, however, clearly identifies these golden calves as “idols” (1 Kings 14:9). Jeroboam himself says of the calves, “Here are your gods…who brought you up out of Egypt” (12:28). Whatever his intentions, Jeroboam clearly established a rival worship in the north that was acceptable to the people of his realm (12:30).

God did not leave Jeroboam’s actions unchallenged, however. He sent a “man of God” from Judah to proclaim words of judgment against Jeroboam and his kingdom, who visited the king during a special feast day at Bethel. The title “man of God” was one of honor, usually identifying a prophet of God. This prophet’s mission was to confront Jeroboam openly with his sin of initiating false worship in Israel. The prophet also foretold of the downfall of the northern kingdom. As he was speaking to Jeroboam, the altar at which the king was standing split apart. This was taken as a sign that the prophet had truly been sent by God.

This biblical account outlines the essential role the prophets played in Israel’s history: to confront a king when he strayed from God’s law. The words of this prophet also point to the ultimate victory the house of David was to have over the northern kingdom, when the Davidic king Josiah destroyed the false worship centers at Bethel and Dan (cf. 2 Kings 23:16). Later God sent another prophet to King Jeroboam to announce that his kingdom would be taken away from him. Thus the northern kingdom of Israel did not receive divine sanction from the words of the prophets. God’s promise to David remained linked to David’s future Son.

The Successors to Jeroboam in the North

The political climate of the northern kingdom of Israel from 901 to 876 B.C. was characterized by instability and dynastic change. Nadab, Jeroboam’s son, reigned as king only two years (901–900 B.C.). He was killed in a coup by Baasha (1 Kings 15:27), a warrior from the tribe of Isaachar. This man held the throne from 900–877 B.C., but his son Elah reigned only two years (877–876 B.C.). He was killed in a plot hatched by one of his military commanders, Zimri. But Zimri reigned only one week, having not been able to rally sufficient support around him from the general populace. Omri, another of Elah’s military commanders, who had a much larger base of public support, attacked Zimri in the capital city Tirzah and killed him (876 B.C.).

Omni reigned for a relatively long period of time, after subduing other contenders to the throne (876–869 B.C.). The biblical authors devote little attention to Omri, even though, politically speaking, he was one of Israel’s most important kings. Omri turned the unpredictable political affairs of the northern kingdom into a relatively stable and long-lived dynasty. Long after his dynasty had died out, the northern kingdom was known to its Assyrian neighbors as “the house of Omri.”

During this period Israel enjoyed a great deal of material prosperity. A new capital was built in Samaria, with a great palace and military fortifications. Some of those buildings remain today. Similar constructions were carried out throughout the northern kingdom. The walls of major cities were strengthened or rebuilt, along with the digging of water tunnels for use during times of siege.

Though usually regarded as politically shrewd and opportunistic, in general the kings of Omri’s dynasty contributed much to the general decline of spiritual vitality in the northern kingdom. These kings, such as King Ahab, became central archetypes of the oppression of the poor and godly remnants of God’s people in Israel (cf. 1 Kings 21). In order to strengthen their overall political position in the ancient world, they engaged in numerous alliances with foreign nations. The infamous marriage of King Ahab with the Phoenician queen Jezebel was probably the result of one such alliance. It was to Israel’s advantage to be allied with the Phoenicians during Ahab’s reign because Phoenicia was at the height of its power and had greatly increased its wealth through extensive colonialization and trade.

Israel’s northern neighbors during the dynasty of Omri, the Arameans, were a powerful and aggressive people, led by Ben-Hadad, the king of Damascus. Ben-Hadad besieged Israel in Samaria during Ahab’s reign (1 Kings 20:1ff.), but they were defeated. Ben-Hadad then launched a second attack on Samaria at the end of that same year (1 Kings 20:26), but he was again defeated. A period of three years of peace followed, at the end of which Ahab joined Jehoshaphat of Judah in waging a brief war with the Arameans. In the ensuing battle Ahab was killed (1 Kings 22:37). Though not mentioned in the Bible, ancient records show that Ahab, on at least one occasion, was an ally with the Arameans against the rising threat of the Assyrians. In 859 B.C., Shalmaneser III invaded the Aramean regions of Syria, reaching as far as the Mediterranean Sea. Israel under Ahab joined with the Aramean city-states and fought an indecisive battle in 853 B.C.

The Fall of the House of Ahab

Ahab was succeeded by his son Ahaziah (1 Kings 22:51–53), who continued the priests, ceremonies, and worship centers established by Jeroboam at Bethel and Dan (12:25–33). He followed the gods of Israel’s neighbors and forsook the God of Israel. Like his father Ahab, Ahaziah was confronted by the prophet Elijah for his idolatry. He died from an accidental fall in his palace in Samaria. He had no heir and thus was succeeded by his younger brother, Joram (Jehoram) (2 Kings 3:1–9:26).

The Bible pictures Joram as somewhat of a reformer. He got rid of, for example, the “sacred stone of Baal” that Ahab had made. Many of the prophet Elisha’s deeds were performed during his reign. In fulfillment of the word of the Lord spoken by Elijah to Ahab, his father (1 Kings 21:29), God ultimately brought judgment on the house of Ahab in the death of his son Joram. This came by the hand of Jehu (2 Kings 9:24–26), who had been specifically anointed by God as an agent of his judgment (1 Kings 19:16).

Jehu, Joram’s top military commander, was the son of an otherwise unknown Israelite named Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi. In destroying the remainder of the house of Ahab, Jehu first killed King Joram (2 Kings 9:14–26), along with Ahaziah, the king of Judah (2 Kings 9:27–29). He then went after Jezebel, the wife of Ahab, and, with the help of the inhabitants of Jezreel, killed her (9:30–37). With her death the word of the prophet Elijah was fulfilled (9:36; cf. 1 Kings 21:23–24). Jehu then set out to eradicate the remainder of the house of Ahab, including Ahab’s seventy sons in Samaria (2 Kings 10:1–10) and all who remained in Jezreel, including “his chief men, his close friends and his priests” (10:11). He traveled throughout the countryside executing any survivors (10:12–17). Jehu then turned against the priests and servants of Baal and destroyed Baal worship in Israel (10:18–29).

Though recounting these events in graphic detail, the writer of Kings takes pains to show that Jehu acted according to the Lord’s will and as the instrument of divine justice against the idolatry of the nation (2 Kings 10:30). Ironically, in spite of Jehu’s religious zeal, he did not remove the false worship centers of Bethel and Dan and hence continued in “the sins of Jeroboam” (10:29, 31). For this neglect, God sent Hazael of Aram against him (cf. 1 Kings 19:15b; 2 Kings 8:7–15). Hazael did not destroy the house of Jehu, but he did reduce its wealth and the size of his kingdom. Jehu lost to Hazael most of his territory east of the Jordan River. But because of his loyalty in carrying out God’s judgment against the house of Ahab, Jehu was rewarded with the promise of a successful dynasty, one that would last four generations (10:30).

The House of Jehu (842–745 B.C.)

Jehu (842–815 B.C.) founded a dynasty in Israel that lasted for nearly a century. During that time, political conditions throughout the Near East were changing rapidly. The Assyrian empire was on the rise. Israel was being pulled into the affairs of those empires that were just beginning to spread their influence across her borders. By the end of the dynasty of Jehu in the mid-eighth century, Assyria could no longer be ignored.

Jehoahaz (815–801 B.C.), the son of Jehu, succeeded him to the throne (2 Kings 13:1). Like Israelite kings before him, he did not remove the high places at Bethel and Dan that Jeroboam had set up (13:2); thus, God sent Hazael king of Aram against him (13:3; cf. 8:12; 1 Kings 19:15). Jehoahaz repented, and God sent Israel a deliverer (2 Kings 13:4–5). The writer of Kings does not identify this deliverer. Perhaps Jehoash son of Jehoahaz was the deliverer in that he “recaptured from Ben-Hadad son of Hazael the towns he had taken in battle from his father Jehoahaz” (13:25). He did this because “the LORD was gracious to them and had compassion” (13:23). A similar situation occurred for much the same reason during the reign of his son, Jeroboam II (14:25–27).

Jehoash (801–786 B.C.) (2 Kings 13:10–25; 14:15–16) did not rise above the other kings of Israel. During his reign, the great prophet Elisha died. Jehoash’s sorrowful response to Elisha’s illness is a witness to the high regard with which he was held even by a king who did evil in God’s eyes. Also during his reign, Israel was oppressed by Hazael. God was gracious and compassionate and did not let Hazael destroy the people of Israel.

Jeroboam II (786–746 B.C.), the son of Jehoash (2 Kings 14:23–29), followed in the footsteps of his namesake, Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. Jonah lived during his reign and prophesied about the restoration of Israel’s eastern borders (14:25)—a prophecy fulfilled through Jeroboam II. This king also recaptured the Aramean cities of Damascus and Hamath. Hosea and Amos were contemporaries of this king and directed their prophecies to his excesses.

Zechariah (746–745 B.C.), the son of Jeroboam II, reigned for six months after succeeding his father. He was assassinated and succeeded by Shallum, the son of Jabesh. Shallum, whose lineage is not clearly established, brought the dynasty of Jehu to an end, thus fulfilling of the Lord’s prophecy to Jehu that his dynasty would fall after the fourth generation (2 Kings 15:12). Shallum (15:13–16) was himself assassinated by Menahem after only one month (15:14).

The Fall of the Northern Kingdom of Israel

Israel endured the hard rule of Menahem (2 Kings 15:17–22) for ten years (746–737 B.C.). During his reign, Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 B.C.), called Pul in 15:19, gained ascendancy as king of Assyria and marched against the weakened city states of Syria to his west. He imposed a heavy tribute on the major cities along the Mediterranean coast. Peace could now only be obtained, even in Israel, with the price of silver and the taxation of every Israelite, particularly the wealthy. We read of Menahem’s plight, along with that of many other local kings and chieftains, in Tiglath-Pileser’s own annals. Menahem’s son, Pekahiah (737–736 B.C.) succeeded him, but he was assassinated by one of his military leaders, Pekah (736–732 B.C.).

In Pekah’s day Tiglath-Pileser captured a major portion of northern Israel’s land (2 Kings 15:29) and deported its people. Pekah sought an alliance with the Aramean king Rezin (740–732 B.C.) to oppose the incursions of Assyrian power. They invited the Judean ...