Stoic Pragmatism

John Lachs

• Publisher: Indiana University Press
• Year: 2012
• Print ISBN: 9780253223760
• eBook ISBN: 9780253007216
• Topic: Philosophy
• Subtopic: Pragmatism in Philosophy

John Lachs, one of American philosophy's most distinguished interpreters, turns to William James, Josiah Royce, Charles S. Peirce, John Dewey, and George Santayana to elaborate stoic pragmatism, or a way to live life within reasonable limits. Stoic pragmatism makes sense of our moral obligations in a world driven by perfectionist human ambition and unreachable standards of achievement. Lachs proposes a corrective to pragmatist amelioration and stoic acquiescence by being satisfied with what is good enough. This personal, yet modest, philosophy offers penetrating insights into the American way of life and our human character.

CHAPTER 1

WHAT CAN PHILOSOPHY DO
TO MAKE LIFE BETTER?

Philosophy: A Primer

Aristotle was right when he said that philosophy begins in wonder. To primitive cave dwellers, everything was in need of explanation and humans had very little of life in their control. The world must have seemed a magical and frightening place, full of mysteries and surprises. Reflection was an intermittent response wrung from the soul by circumstances; neither systematic nor persistent, it amounted to little more than puzzlement about the workings of the world.

Sustained inquiry tends to yield results, sometimes even a practical advantage. Thales, the first philosopher in the West, is reputed to have learned so much about weather and growing cycles that he managed to corner the olive market in Greece. Such coincidences of knowledge and practicality have been relatively rare in the history of thought, and Thales himself showed the other side of philosophy by clumsily falling into a well and drowning in the act of speculation.

Thales thought that in the last analysis everything is made of water. The Ionian philosophers who followed him continued to look for one or a few principles that would explain the movement of everything. In line with the tendency of philosophers, they exhausted or nearly exhausted the available alternatives. Some thought the hot, the cold, the wet, and the dry constituted adequate principles of explanation. Others gave pride of place to love and strife, to fire, or to an elemental continuum called “the boundless.” Heraclitus maintained that everything changes; Parmenides was certain nothing does. Again, as is frequently the case in philosophy, there was overgeneralization without the benefit of a procedure for selecting the best of a multitude of theories.

Plato

Plato's Socrates found mechanical explanations, that is, explanations by reference to the automatic operations of nature, inadequate. He called attention to the significance of purposes, and through them of knowledge and mind, for understanding what happens in the world. Plato was the first great systematic thinker of the West. His influence on subsequent generations has been so great that Alfred North Whitehead, an important twentieth-century philosopher, averred that all of philosophy may well be a series of footnotes to Plato.

Through the work of Plato, philosophy acquired a primary interest in human affairs. The earlier Ionian thinkers focused their reflections on the operations of nature; Plato, by contrast, viewed nature as but the backdrop to the drama of life in society. He attempted to develop a precise notion of justice and other virtues, drew a sharp distinction between knowledge and mere belief, and spent great effort at describing the political order that best promotes human flourishing. Most important, perhaps, Plato directed the attention of philosophers to the initially useful but ultimately futile search for the essence or inner nature of things.

Plato's so-called theory of forms amounts to the idea that everything has a nature that it shares with other beings of the same kind. Some form or structure makes humans humans and rats rats, and this is displayed by every member of the species and no one or nothing besides. Plato depicts the search for essences as difficult and not always successful; in spite of his extraordinary dialectical skills, Socrates is shown in the dialogue Euthyphro unable to develop a precise definition of piety. Once the search succeeds, however, grasp of the form or species-essence provides amazing benefits. It enables us to understand the nature of things and, because nature grounds perfection, also to judge their performance.

Nature is normative in that it sets the standard to which all beings of the same kind are to approximate. Nevertheless, nothing quite lives up to its ideal; no human is totally wise, brave, self-controlled, and just. So instead of being perfect, we seek perfection through our actions. What Plato calls “eros,” or love of the good, motivates us to reach for the higher, for what would truly fulfill us. What is good, Plato argues, is also true and beautiful, though ultimately it is the form of the good alone that gives intelligible structure to the world.

Plato spent considerable effort describing and defending his notion of the ideal community. The small state he has in mind is based on knowledge of the good and is, accordingly, ruled by wise men or philosopher-kings. In such a community, careful education and strategic lies assure compliance with the laws. Division of labor makes it possible for everyone to gain satisfaction by developing their special talents. Artists and other potential troublemakers are banned and everyone can flourish under the benevolent gaze of unselfish rulers. To Plato's credit, he had the courage to try to convert his ideas into reality. When the tyrant of Syracuse invited him to serve as his advisor, he eagerly accepted and traveled to Sicily. As one could have predicted, things did not work out and his employer sold Plato into slavery.

Knowledge of the Eternal

The grand system of ideas Plato developed set the tone, the terms, and the method of one major form of philosophy. This type of thought presents philosophical reflection as a source of superior knowledge we cannot gain by ordinary experience. It sees the world as fostering perfection and professes to reveal realities inaccessible without its services. Philosophy of this type often allies itself with religion and offers proofs of the existence of God, the unreality of time, and the purposes of the universe. In this mood, philosophy claims to be the ultimate science, giving its practitioners certain knowledge of the eternal.

In the case of Plato, as in many other cases in philosophy, it didn't take long for someone holding radically different views to emerge. Aristotle, Plato's student, rejected many of his teacher's opinions in the process of inventing such concepts as potentiality and actuality and thereby establishing what we now consider the worldview of common sense. In his great Nicomachean Ethics—meant as instruction for his son, Nicomachus—Aristotle made it clear that in such vital fields as ethics and politics, certainty is impossible to attain and the work of philosophy consists of the analysis and improvement of our ordinary practices. Accordingly, he proceeded to develop the principles of logic, for example, not from some imaginary ideal, but with careful reference to what people do when they actually reason. The disagreement between Plato and Aristotle on the method of philosophy is still with us today, inviting thinkers to characterize themselves as rationalists, stressing the possibility of insight into the hidden, timeless nature of things, or empiricists, emphasizing experience and successful practice as the only valid sources of knowledge.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

This conflict played itself out in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the clash of the monumental figures now called “Continental rationalists” and “British empiricists.” The great rationalists Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz were from the continent of Europe; the empiricists Locke, Berkeley, and Hume were subjects of the British crown. The rationalists recommended intuitively evident premises and logical reasoning as the method of philosophy. The empiricists, by contrast, maintained that philosophical knowledge must have its foundation in sense experience. Descartes' starting point was the famous “I think, therefore I am,” which indicated immediate and certain acquaintance with oneself. He proposed to deduce the entire system of our beliefs from this, to him unquestionable, truth. Spinoza preferred to commence reasoning from the idea of a God that is the impersonal totality of the universe. Leibniz rejected the ideas of his predecessors and built his system on the notion that the world consists of an infinite number of independently existing sentient beings called “monads.”

How are we to decide which starting point is the correct one or the best? And how can we tell which system comes closer to being a true and defensible account of how things are? Should we think of God as the benevolent creator of the world or the impersonal sum of all beings? Should we believe that the mind is an independently existing, indestructible entity or that it is but a fragment of one of the infinite manifestations of the Deity? Each philosopher's view has a certain plausibility, yet each system is brought into question by the plausibility of the others. The problem rationalists face is their inability to supply a basis for deciding among the profusion of their visions of reality. Without such a decision procedure, no system is more than a collection of imaginative ideas.

Empiricists are committed to considering nothing as legitimately in the mind that was not first in the senses. This requires an exceptionally sharp-sighted and honest account of the content of sensation. What is present to the senses when we seem to see a table? Does the actual table make an appearance in consciousness or do we sense only some colors and shapes that we merely believe to be an external object? If the latter is true, is the entire world made up of our sense experiences? Moreover, what are we to make of important ideas that can never be supported by sensations, such as the notions of infinity and God? The awful consequences of restricting knowledge to what we can sense dawned slowly on Locke and Berkeley; only Hume realized the skeptical bite of the position. In this way, empiricism undercuts its commitment to keep faith with ordinary life, for our daily operations suggest that we know a great deal even if we cannot provide a flawless account of how or why.

Kant

Kant recognized the bankruptcy of all previous philosophy and attributed it, correctly, to a failure of method. He challenged the shared assumption of rationalists and empiricists, namely that there is an external world independent of the cognitive efforts of human beings. He proposed a “Copernican revolution,” placing the human mind at the center of the world we inhabit. He was prepared to pay the price of calling this world one of appearances for the benefit of being able to say that it is knowable. The reason we can know it, he thought, was because we make it. The human mind provides space, time, quantity, quality, and causation—in brief, all significant features and relationships—to reality. The transcendental method of proof he developed proceeds from the fact of shared human knowledge to the necessary conditions of its possibility. This amounts to asking what else must be true if it is true that there is knowledge. Kant was ready with an answer, but the system he constructed on that basis is generally acknowledged to be arcane and implausible.

Kant's problem is the unwarranted assumption of a human mind that is not the mind of any person and yet serves as the dynamic agency constructing the world. To be sure, something like what Kant located on the transcendental level actually goes on empirically; especially since the Industrial Revolution, humans have been recreating the world to suit their purposes. This has been taken seriously by such American pragmatists as John Dewey, but the reconstruction they address is concrete and piecemeal, and it presupposes a structured environment amenable to human effort. Kant's translation of mundane facts into the transcendental operations of mind or reason confers plausibility on the claim that instead of revealing secret realities, philosophy only converts observable social developments into the medium of thought.

Philosophy and Progress

Something close to this idea was embraced by Kant's successor, Hegel, who thought that philosophy constitutes the self-consciousness of the age. Such German idealists as Fichte, Hegel, and Schelling adopted totality as the central concept of their thought yet found it difficult to escape the pull of nationalist sentiments and to avoid the glorification of war. The traditional view is that philosophy offers eternal truths. Yet philosophers have been notably time-bound in their positions. Aristotle was undisturbed by the practice of slavery, and one can read hundreds of thinkers without suspecting that half the human race is constituted by women. Earlier missteps in thought would be easier to accept if philosophy progressed in line with the improving moral climate of human life. And, indeed, the sentiments of at least some philosophers have become markedly better. There is, however, no discernible progress in the quality of philosophy or in the quantity of truths it uncovers. In this respect, it is not at all like science, which amazes with continuous series of new discoveries. Philosophy is more like music and literature: just as there is no match today for Mozart and Shakespeare, so we have no one who can approximate the accomplishments of Plato or Hegel.

This does not mean that philosophy is in decline or, as some even suggest, dead. Many a thinker has made a name for himself and earned a comfortable living by announcing the death of his field of endeavor. The fact that philosophy is in this respect unlike science, however, is no reason to declare it useless. It deals with the most difficult problems of human existence, ranging from the nature of happiness to our proper relations to others and from the meaning of life to the possibility of personal immortality. These are not questions that can be settled once and for all. We may never know the answers to them with any level of certainty. But they are not, as the logical positivists of the first half of the twentieth century maintained, meaningless queries that we had best forget. They are important and formative of our lives; we begin asking them in the teenage years and continue pondering them until we go to the grave. Philosophy is not something we outgrow. It travels with us through life and its problems acquire special urgency in times of crisis.

Ethics

Examples of the importance and frustrations of philosophy abound in the realm of ethics. In order to improve our understanding and increase the amount of good in the world, we must learn what makes some actions right and others wrong. Unfortunately, philosophers seem unable to agree on an answer. There are three plausible but incompatible possibilities, and ethicists have held every one of them. John Stuart Mill and other utilitarians maintain that the rightness of actions depends on their consequences; the right action is the one that creates the greatest amount of good over the long term. Kant and so-called deontologists believe that the key factor is the intention with which the action is performed. Joseph Butler and other intuitionists assert that some actions are just right in and of themselves, independently of intention and consequence.

Each of the positions has a recommended procedure for identifying right actions. Mill suggests that we add up all the reasonably expectable good and deduct from it the reasonably expectable harm for each alternative action; the right action is the one with the greatest net sum of good. Kant proposes that we test our intention to see if the principle on which we propose to act would remain intact and operable even if everyone adopted it. Butler feels certain that if we distanced ourselves from the heat of passion and thought about things in “the cool of the afternoon,” the true moral features of the action would become clearly visible.

How are we to decide among these theories and procedures? We see here once again the recurrent problem of philosophy: each view and method has something to be said for it, none can be established conclusively, and they are incompatible with each other. The same standoff presents itself in accounts of the nature of happiness. Some thinkers maintain that it is impossible to be happy without getting what we like. Others argue that happiness consists of liking what we get. Which of the two views is nearer the truth? At certain points in life, one view will seem stronger; at others, the other. It may be tempting to combine the two, but the attitudes and efforts required by one are incompatible with those demanded by the other.

Disagreement

What are we to make of the fact that philosophers do not agree on any idea and cannot present a single truth as authenticated by their methods? This is a conclusive objection to philosophy for those who prize unanimity. The leading faculty in philosophy, however, is the imagination, not reason. Philosophical thinking spreads a feast of alternatives. It opens the mind to the values of other people and enriches our sympathies for what may seem alien forms of life. It also presents different sorts of belief, placing what we have been taught from childhood in a context of rival conceptions and thereby liberating us from the rule of unexamined faith. There is no certainty in philosophy, but then there is no certainty anywhere else either, and being able to choose what we want to believe should be at least a partial compensation for never being able to let our guard down by feeling sure.

Such American pragmatists as William James and John Dewey remind us that life is but a series of experiments. We face problems at every turn, try out possible solutions, and build habits out of successful operations. We revise the habits reluctantly and only when they no longer yield results. Our ideas are tools by means of which we accomplish what we want, so we can change them to suit the occasion and the demands of circumstances. Evidence for our beliefs is obviously important, but only because it is an indication of prior operational success. When evidence is lacking, James points out, as in the case of God and immortality, we can believe whatever works best for us. The scope of this liberty may be astounding or disquieting, but we find that that in fact is what people tend to do. They dedicate their lives to God or else defiantly embrace the atheist creed, and abandon their positions only when they no longer make sense of their lives.

Philosophy as Critique

The role of philosophy for Dewey is to serve as critic of beliefs and practices. When we are reluctant to leave old ideas behind or fail to detect contradictions among our convictions, a hard jolt from an external rational source may prove productive. Social and political life are especially likely to harbor the vestiges of old commitments and conceptual survivals of an earlier age. A philosophical examination of our culture may well identify the outgrown, the nonfunctional, and the perhaps even pernicious among our values and practices and, exposing them, contribute to their elimination. This gives philosophers a vital social task and an important political function. Although many thinkers are too timid to exercise this role, at least a few have been willing to stand up and assume the mantle of the public intellectual. John Stuart Mill ran for Parliament and served a term, Emerson and James took on some of the sacred cows of their communities, and Dewey himself was constantly engaged in the controversies of his age.

The opportunities for relatively disinterested philosophical observation and criticism have greatly increased of late. The need for ethical reflection in a rapidly changing world has thrust philosophers into hospitals, businesses, and government agencies. Finding them as members of health care teams or preparing “ethical impact statements” for proposed actions or policies would have been unthinkable a scant forty years ago. Today, presidential bioethics commissions, hospital ethics committees, and ethics experts in newspapers provide the dispassionate analysis and broad-gauged empathy necessary for responsible action under conditions of stress and uncertainty. Philosophers are, of course, not the only people capable of fulfilling this function, but their conceptual sophistication, sensitivity to language, and reasoning skills equip them particularly well for such activities.

Current trends in philosophy have reversed the Platonic fascination with the essence or inner nature of things. The Darwinian continuity of species, along with the frustrations of a futile search, have turned both American pragmatists and postmodern Continentalists away from an interest in determining what things “really” are toward tracing their functions and interrelations. The way we group things is seen more and more as a free exercise governed by our purposes or prevailing power relations. We tend to conceive of species or classes as collections of individuals displaying certain resemblances, but not as sharing a single essence that makes them what they are. This is a wholesome development, redirecting the efforts of philosophers toward understanding the variability and indeterminacy of all things and away from the idea that the world is defined by rigid categories.

Philosophy and Science

This raises the question of the relations of philosophy to science. The most important consideration here is to see their continuities along with their differences. In one way or another, philosophy is the parent of all the sciences, having launched their inquiries and having subsequently separated itself from them. Physics was once called “natural philosophy” and was initially conducted as a philosophical enterprise. When Plato spoke of the soul as animating the body, he meant this idea to be taken, among other things, as a biological hypothesis. There were no research findings in those days to operationalize the theory, but there can be...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Introduction
• Chapter 1 - What Can Philosophy do to Make Life Better?
• Chapter 2 - Stoic Pragmatism
• Chapter 3 - Infinite Obligations
• Chapter 4 - An Ontology for Stoic Pragmatism
• Epilogue - The Personal Value and Social Usefulness of Philosophy
• About the Author