Future Research Directions for Applied Linguistics

Simone E. Pfenninger, Judit Navracsics, Simone E. Pfenninger, Judit Navracsics

• Publisher: Multilingual Matters
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781783097142
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Psycolinguistics
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

This edited volume provides an overview of current thinking and directions for further research in applied linguistics by bringing together in a single volume a range of perspectives regarding original research agendas and innovative methodological approaches. It focuses not only on the challenges that applied linguistics researchers have been facing in recent years but also on producing workable and productive research designs and on identifying ways of how alternatives to conventional research methodologies can be used. Discussions featured in the volume include the so-called 'Bilingual Advantage' in psycho- and neurolinguistics; the optimal starting age debate in foreign language learning; the growing interest among applied linguists in more nuanced and more complex (statistical) data analysis and the priority given to more descriptive and social approaches to linguistics rather than to theorising. The collection will be a useful reference and stimulus for students, researchers and professionals working in the areas of applied linguistics, psycholinguistics, second language acquisition and second language education.

1Introduction

Simone E. Pfenninger and Judit Navracsics

As a genuine ‘language-centered problem-solving enterprise’ (Grabe, 2010: 34), applied linguistics has been at the busy intersection between various allied fields of general linguistics, such as psychology, education, sociology, public policy, information technology and others. Indeed, many scholars feel that linguistics represents only one among the many disciplines contributing to applied linguistics, rather than its core (see Cook, 2009). The call for papers to the 2011 AILA conference goes even further and lists 28 areas in applied linguistics (Schmitt & Celce-Murcia, 2010). It is therefore not surprising that this is a field that is notoriously difficult to define – almost ‘elusive of definition’ (Widdowson, 2005: 12) – embracing, inter alia, neurolinguistic, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic issues in the ‘real world’, language education and policy, and second language acquisition (SLA), foreign language (FL) teaching and learning. Thus, it does not represent one scholarly domain but rather a multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary science; what goes under the name of applied linguistics is acknowledged to be highly diverse (Hall et al., 2011; Kaplan, 2010; Widdowson, 2005). The diversity of research issues addressed in applied linguistics, the steady growth of the field, the variety of (alternative) methods and procedures, the contextual diversity of acquisition/learning processes, the considerable increase in new statistical analyses, and the rate at which the field has been changing require those involved in this discipline to constantly reinvent themselves, to have a wide and thorough knowledge of new methods of data collection and analysis, and to make the transition from old-school to new-school approaches to language development. Furthermore, the greater attention currently being paid to this field has multiplied the number of points of view from which it can be analyzed.

To the extent that this collection, as its title implies, offers a snapshot of future implications for applied linguistics, our intention is to contribute to the progress and academic development of this broad discipline. This edited volume aims to be a timely overview of current thinking and directions for further research in applied linguistics by bringing together in a single volume a range of perspectives regarding original research agendas and innovative methodological approaches. The focus is thus not only on the challenges that applied linguistics research has been facing in recent years but also on producing workable and productive research designs (possibly in uncharted territories) and on identifying ways as to how alternatives to conventional research methodologies can be operationalized. We are now at a point where it is becoming essential to initiate a reassessment of central themes and controversial issues in this branch of linguistics, to examine who is practising, where, and with what methods. Many applied linguists are beginning to do just that. There have been several excellent reviews of key theories, methodologies and the history of applied linguistics (e.g. de Bot, 2015; Gabrys´-Barker, in prep.; Loewen & Plonsky, 2015; Paltridge & Phakiti, 2010), as well as collections that offer directions for further research with respect to specific areas of applied linguistics or a specific theoretical framework (e.g. Bruthiaux, 2005; Verspoor et al., 2012). However, particularly for those new to these debates, it is necessary to stress a selection of salient points, such as: (1) new theoretical perspectives on research conundrums in applied linguistics, e.g. the so-called ‘bilingual advantage’ (BA) in psycho- and neurolinguistics or the optimal starting age debate in FL learning; (2) the growing interest among applied linguists in more nuanced and more complex (statistical) data analysis; and (3) the priority given to more descriptive and social approaches to linguistics rather than to theorizing. In what follows we examine these three main themes that emerge from the 12 chapters in this volume, starting with the contribution of applied linguistics to issues such as the BA debate.

New Theoretical Perspectives on Research Conundrums in Applied Linguistics

The volume opens with a piece by de Bot that reflects on the ongoing debate regarding the BA, and provides a conceptual framework for the more narrowly focused discussions that follow in Chapters 3 and 4. Analyzing some of the main language use activities that are assumed to be responsible for the BA, de Bot describes a new phase in bilingualism research, a phase that is characterized by finer grained analyses of task effects and a focus on the effects of a BA on different populations in different contexts and life circumstances. In lieu of definite answers, de Bot suggests that ‘rather than trying to find “the” BA it is better to see what advantages bilingualism may bring for different populations and tasks’ (p. 28). He also calls attention to the general tendency in academic publishing to favour positive outcomes over so-called null effects. In particular, he points out how results supporting a BA are still more likely to be published than results challenging such an advantage (de Bot, 2015; de Bruin et al., 2015; but cf. Bialystok et al., 2015). Csépe (Chapter 3) discusses insights into the BA that can be gained through the use of recently developed neuroscientific methods that improve the detectability of any advantage for bilinguals, as well as language use activities that are assumed to be responsible for the BA. She shares with de Bot the belief that the debate on the benefits and drawbacks of growing up bilingual is still in its infancy – at least from a methodological point of view. Csépe does, however, seem less troubled by task effects and the low ecological validity of tests assessing the BA. Her main concern is the importance of neuroscientific research that focuses on questions of separability and domain specificity. In Chapter 4, Navracsics and Sáry raise the question of the quality of linguistic awareness as reflected by the age and manner of becoming bilingual. Having employed a psychophysical technique measuring reaction time and accuracy judgement, they see the development of semantic awareness independent of age or manner. At the same time, phonological awareness at the written level is much more dependent on age and manner of language acquisition, and they find second language (L2) learners faster but not less successful than natural bilinguals in phonological processing. In terms of the validity of the bilingual cognitive advantage, the data provide evidence that processing two languages is more time consuming, and it should be taken into account in all testing circumstances.

The potential and the benefits of research in neurolinguistics and the impact of language learning on brain processing is perhaps not a prominent immediate concern of applied linguistics (see Grabe, 2010: 39). However, significant advances in the relationships between brain functioning and language learning in recent decades suggest that research insights from neurolinguistics have become too important to ignore. This is also a main focus in Chapter 5 by van Heuven, who discusses alternative neurolinguistic methods such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potentials (ERP), which may supplement, or even replace, conventional paradigms to gain a better grip on the mental and cerebral representation of the phonology and phonetics of bilinguals (see also Sereno & Wang, 2007). Van Heuven – like Navracsics and Sáry in Chapter 4, and Pfenninger and Singleton in Chapter 6 – also addresses the thorny question of the impact of starting age on L2/FL attainment. Focusing on four groups of listeners in naturalistic settings – a monolingual Dutch group, a monolingual English group, late bilinguals and early bilinguals – he presents evidence for the hypothesis that even very gifted late learners of the target language still differ – subtly but measurably – from native speakers of the target language in terms of their perceptual representation of the sound system of the target language. Late bilinguals may acquire pronunciation skills that are indistinguishable from those of monolingual speakers of either target language, but are non-native in the details of their perceptual representation of either sound system. Taking as a starting point the classic myth that childhood is the best time to start to learn an FL, Pfenninger and Singleton (Chapter 6) review research that has a closer look at the ‘earlier = better’ claim. While findings concerning the age factor in naturalistic settings speak in favour of an early start to L2 learning in these settings – as exemplified in van Heuven’s Chapter 5 – research in formal instructional L2 learning settings has confirmed the finding relating to the initial faster rate of older starters (e.g. Álvarez, 2006; Cenoz, 2003; Mora, 2006), but has not confirmed the long-term benefits of an early start. Classroom studies in a range of countries have shown not only a rate advantage for late starters over early starters, but also very few linguistic advantages to beginning the study of an FL earlier in a minimal input situation (see, for example, Larson-Hall, 2008; Muñoz, 2006, 2011; Myles & Mitchell, 2012; Náves, 2009; Pfenninger, 2014a, 2014b; Unsworth et al., 2012).

It is subjects such as these that exemplify research at the heart of applied linguistics: studies of real-world issues, ‘facts’, beliefs and assumptions that constitute different ways of thinking and living. According to Widdowson (2005), the essential issue for applied linguistics is ‘whether, how, and how far the ideas and findings that have been refined out of actual data by idealization and analysis can be referred back reflexively to the domains of folk [e.g. teacher/learner] experience whence they came and be made relevant in practice’ (Widdowson, 2005: 20). As Widdowson (2005: 21) concedes, this is a difficult thing to do, ‘and it is very tempting to simplify matters’ such as by ignoring contextual factors, neglecting the diversity of local domains and making overgeneralizations. This leads us to the next theme of this volume.

New Methodological Approaches to the Complexity of Real-world Issues

Many authors in this volume endorse the development and use of new methodological approaches in applied linguistics. If we are to engage with real-world issues and take account of the complex variety of the ‘real world’, we need to: (1) take account of the interconnectedness of subsystems present; (2) develop research designs that base themselves on quantitative as well as qualitative findings such as mixed methodology; and (3) make more use of statistical models with built-in ecological validity, i.e. models that take account of both participant and item variability, allowing for the assessment of the impact of context-varying factors on age (over time).

It will be suggested throughout this book (e.g. by de Bot, Penris & Verspoor; Cergol Kovačević; and Bátyi) that there is a need to see language (acquisition) as comprising factors that are dynamic rather than static, complex (in the sense of patterns emerging from components interacting within the ecology in which they operate), interdependent, developing in a non-linear hence unpredictable fashion, highly dependent on initial conditions, and constantly changing and subject to perturbations – all of which are main points of the concept of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) (for a fuller treatment of dynamic systems theory as it has been applied to language and SLA, the interested reader is referred to de Bot, 2008; de Bot et al., 2007; Dörnyei et al., 2014; Jessner, 2008; Larsen-Freeman, 2015; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). Penris and Verspoor’s study (Chapter 11) makes a convincing case that CDST has far-reaching consequences, beyond what one might normally expect with a new theory. They set out to identify measures that work for writing at advanced levels, especially of academic writing, where nominalizations and other non-finite constructions are used. To this end, the texts of one student were rated on academic style by seven independent judges, and a number of measures were correlated with the median of the ratings. In line with the main premises of CDST, Penris and Verspoor conclude that ‘linguistic development in writing is a rather erratic process when examined up close’. Given the fact that throughout the life span of a multilingual person many factors involved in multilingual development are subject to constant change, Jessner and Török (Chapter 10) argue that multilingualism lends itself to being researched from a CDST perspective. The aim of their chapter is to provide further insight into multilingual processing by shedding light on one of the key elements of the so-called M(ultilingualism)-factor, namely the implementation of strategies when trying to decode an unknown language. Research on strategies conventionally takes a rather reductionist approach, whereas the methodology discussed in this chapter takes into consideration the dynamics of the linguistic and other systems of the multilingual learners involved, thus proposing an alternative in the methodological approach to research on multilingual benefit.

The multidisciplinary approach of applied linguistics is also very strongly reflected in the greater focus on more sophisticated and more appropriate quantitative analyses from natural sciences methodology rather than the general and often inadequate approaches of the past. Attention to new statistical methods in applied linguistics has become particularly salient in view of two main developments in this field. One is the paradigm shift from qualitative to quantitative research designs that took place in applied linguistics in the 1990s and early 2000s. Lazaraton (2005: 214) sees three main problems with this paradigm shift: (1) she fears that general linear models (GLM) such as ANOVA and t-tests are used ‘in violation of at least some of the assumptions of the procedure’ (see also de Bot, 2012: 13–22), such as the inclusion of correlated data in linear models; (2) a great deal of the research becomes obscure for all but the most statistical...