Tourism and Climate Change

Risks and Opportunities

Susanne Becken, John E. Hay

• Publisher: Channel View Publications
• Year: 2007
• Print ISBN: 9781845410667
• eBook ISBN: 9781845412630
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Hospitality, Travel & Tourism Industry
• Index: Business

This book discusses the tourism-climate system and provides a sound basis for those interested in tourism management and climate change mitigation, adaptation and policy. In the first three chapters, the book provides a general overview of the relationships between tourism and climate change and illustrates the complexity in four case studies that are relevant to the wide audience of tourism stakeholders. In the following seven chapters detailed discussion of the tourism and climate systems, greenhouse gas accounting for tourism, mitigation, climate risk management and comprehensive tourism-climate policies are provided. This book compiles and critically analyses the latest knowledge in this field of research and seeks to make it accessible to tourism practitioners and other stakeholders involved in tourism or climate change.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Risk is potential loss and opportunity is possible gain. Over the last few years there has been increasing recognition of the risks and opportunities that climate change brings to tourism.

Tourism takes place in a wide range of places that are often closely linked to the natural environment and, as a consequence, to local climatic conditions. Changes in the climate, including climate-related hazards, have the potential to affect tourism businesses and tourist experiences alike. The tourism industry has to face headlines such as:

• ‘Cool Season Dampens Fun, Pinches Profits: Summertime Blues’ The Detroit News 27 August 2004

• ‘Unseasonably Warm Weather Brings US Ski Season to Disappointing End’ The Press-Enterprise 17 April 2004

• ‘Wilma Slams Mexico Resorts’ CNN 24 October 2005

• ‘Dutch Seek to Defend Coastal Resorts from Sea Rise’ Planet Ark 23 January 2006

• ‘Tourism Experts Say Hot Summer Means Higher Turnover’ Deutsche Welle 31 July 2006

Tourism is increasingly recognised as a significant activity, with a range of economic, social and environmental consequences. Tourism is one contributor to the build-up of greenhouse gases (GHGs), which are now recognised as causing unprecedented changes in the global climate. Such links between tourism and climate change are now acknowledged by key players in the tourism industry. Mark Ellingham, the founder of Rough Guides, and Tony Wheeler, who created Lonely Planet, want fellow travellers to ‘fly less and stay longer’ and donate money to carbon offsetting schemes. They urge their readers to: ‘join to discourage “casual flying”’. A “Rough Guide to Climate Change” has appeared in late 2006.

As with the headlines that highlight climate-related risks and opportunities to tourism, the sector also has to deal with a growing number of headlines that sensitise tourists about their impacts on the global climate.

• ‘Night flights much worse for global warming’ The Independent 3 August 2006

• ‘Aviation “huge threat to CO₂ aim”’ BBC News 21 September 2005

• ‘It's a sin to fly, says church’ The Sunday Times 23 July 2006

The last headline relates to an announcement by the Bishop of London. He said it was sinful for people to contribute to climate change by flying on holiday, driving a ‘gas-guzzling’ car or failing to use energy-saving measures in their homes. Similar calls have been made elsewhere, for example by a group of Anglican bishops in New Zealand and Fiji. They committed themselves to carbon management and offsetting.

In the last year or two there have been some dramatic changes in the perception of climate change and recognition of the risks if these are not addressed. Research into the risks, as well as opportunities, helps decision makers to implement effective and efficient measures. In the area of tourism, little research has been undertaken with respect to climate change. Early publications include those by Giles and Perry (1998), Viner and Agnew (1999), Wall and Badke (1994) and Wall (1998). An Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2003) report on the global impacts of climate change, and the associated benefits of an effective climate policy noted that ‘In some key sectors, such as recreation, tourism, and energy, there has been little research conducted that characterises the relationship between climate change and impacts at a global scale.’ Development of appropriate policies has been limited as a result.

This book aims to bring together current understanding regarding the interactions between climate change and tourism and to highlight both the policy implications as well as the repercussions for tourism businesses, policy and decision makers, and tourism practitioners. The audience for this book is diverse, as the issue of tourism and climate change is cross-cutting and influences many spheres of life, including both planning and decision making. The topics covered are also of interest to university students of both the environmental sciences and tourism. However, the book mainly targets those decision makers who must take into account the impacts of climate change on tourism or consider the GHG emissions caused by tourism. These decision makers will be working in national, regional or international governmental organisations, and in non-governmental organisations including tourism industry organisations. Importantly, the structure of the book is such that it will appeal to any reader who seeks specific information on the tourism–climate interactions and their practical implications.

The book is structured into two major parts. Chapters 1–3 (Introduction, The Tourism–Climate System, and Tourism–Climate Case Studies) introduce and elaborate the interactions between tourism and climate, including identification of climate–tourism ‘hotspots’. Practical considerations are illustrated in four case studies. The first two focus on Alpine Europe and small island states. These have been identified as among the most vulnerable types of destination with respect to climate change. However, both mitigation and adaptation responses are discussed. The insurance industry case study highlights again the need for risk management in relation to climate change. Key concerns for tourism include natural disasters and the increasing difficulty to obtain insurance cover for many tourism businesses and infrastructure. International aviation is discussed in the fourth case study. It highlights the political difficulties of implementing fair and equitable climate change mitigation policies.

Chapters 1–3 thus provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the key issues related to climate change and tourism, along with a more in-depth and practical understanding of tourism–climate issues for four more specific situations. The remainder of the book provides more in-depth information on the key components of the tourism–climate system. Forward referencing in Chapters 1–3 enables the reader to identify which of the subsequent chapters are of particular interest. Summary bullet points at the beginning of each chapter also assist the reader to gain a quick insight into chapter content and assess its relevance.

Chapter 4 describes tourism and details the recent trends that are relevant to any discussion of climate change issues. An argument will be made as to the special nature of tourism and why it is important to pay attention to these specific characteristics when dealing with climate change issues. This chapter also discusses major tourist flows worldwide and the growing economic importance of tourism. Attention will be paid to the emergence of ‘responsible tourism’, as this trend is consistent with the need for the tourism industry to reduce GHG emissions.

Chapter 5, ‘Global and Regional Climate Change’, provides more detailed explanations of the greenhouse effect and global climate change. The key changes in climate, including increased surface and water temperatures and tropic storm intensities, and sea-level rise, are discussed in terms of the relevance to tourism. Scenario analysis is an important tool to explore possible paths for the future. The scenarios developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are used as a starting point to developing plausible futures for tourism. It is also possible that climate change will include ‘surprises’ – abrupt and pervasive changes that would have catastrophic consequences for tourism and other economic, social and environmental systems.

Given that tourism is a major contributor to GHG emissions, Chapter 6 on ‘Methodologies for Greenhouse Gas Accounting’ discusses approaches for energy and GHG accounting in tourism. The chapter provides an overview of major emission sources associated with the combustion of fossil fuels, different forms of energy and emission coefficients to convert energy use into carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other gaseous emissions. Two different approaches are discussed: bottom-up and top-down analyses. The former details methodologies for transport and other tourism businesses, as well as for different tourist types. The latter uses the tool of input–output (IO) analysis to derive tourism-related energy use and CO₂ emissions at a country level. Chapter 6 is critical to understanding the energy and emission analyses and response measures described in Chapter 7.

Chapter 7, ‘Climate Change Mitigation Measures’, presents the current knowledge of energy use and GHG emissions associated with various tourist activities. The main emission categories are air travel, surface transport, tourist accommodation and recreational activities. GHG reduction options to mitigate tourism's contribution to climate change are detailed for each of these categories. The application of renewable energy sources is discussed, for both mobile and in situ tourism activities. Finally, the chapter provides an overview of carbon compensation schemes: projects that provide alternative and more cost effective ways to reduce or offset emissions. There are already a number of schemes that offer tourists ways to offset their GHG emissions. These include investing in energy efficiency, renewable energy sources or carbon sink projects.

The risks of climate change to tourism are at the core of Chapter 8 (‘Climate Change-related Risks and Adaptation’). Potential impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation measures are discussed. There are many options for reducing climate-related risks through adaptation in the tourism sector. These can be implemented for all three of the major components of the tourism system – the source region for tourists, for tourist travel and at the destination – and at all levels, ranging from the individual tourist, operator and tourism-dependent community through to global initiatives.

A recent edition of The Economist featured a cover with the headline: ‘Why aviation will be the next green political battlefield’. Clearly there is an increasing need for policies and actions that address the various roles tourism plays with respect to climate change. Increasingly we see the integration of mitigation strategies, adaptation and disaster management into a common approach of sustainable tourism development. Such ‘Climate Change Policies and Practices’ are discussed in Chapter 9. The chapter also provides an overview of key international institutions relevant to climate change and tourism as well as the major international agreements and initiatives. An iterative policy framework and process for mitigation and adaptation is proposed.

The ‘Conclusion’ (Chapter 9) highlights the importance of considering tourism as part of a much bigger system in which the interactions between tourism and climate have repercussions for a wide range of other sectors and social activities, and vice versa. The increasing incidence of weather extremes and anomalous climatic conditions, and the mounting consequences for tourism and tourism-dependent countries and communities, are timely warning of the need to give serious attention to the risks climate change poses to the tourism sector. Climate change will also provide some opportunities, though overall these will be far outweighed by the adverse impacts. This book not only describes both the risks and opportunities but also provides the reader with practical guidance and examples for managing the risks and taking advantage of the opportunities. As a significant emitter of GHGs, in the longer term the tourism industry can also help slow the rate of climate change. Again, practical guidance and examples are provided.

The book is intended to build the knowledge and understanding needed to generate the commitment by key players in tourism to initiate and sustain the actions that will reduce both tourism's contributions to climate change and the climate-related risks to tourism. While individual responsibility and action is required, it must be supported and coordinated by policies and plans at national, community, business enterprise and other relevant levels. For this reason the book targets tourism policy and decision makers in both the public and private sectors, as well as those who have leadership roles in tourism-dependent communities.

Chapter 2

The Tourism – Climate System

Key Points for Policy and Decision Makers, and Tourism Operators

• Those working in tourism are mainly concerned about climate-related risks. At the same time tourism is a very energy-intensive activity that contributes to GHG emissions and the build-up of these gases in the atmosphere.

• Interventions or responses designed to reduce climate-related risks fall into two categories: mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation includes initiatives for reducing GHG emissions, whereas adaptation refers to interventions that reduce the vulnerability to climate change impacts.

• Tourism has been described as a system; earlier system approaches assumed a linear nature of tourism, which failed to capture the true complexity of tourism. The open and complex nature of both the climate and tourism systems makes it is extremely difficult to predict, manage and control future changes.

• There are several key agents involved in tourism, namely the private sector, public sector, ‘destinations’ (with numerous agents) and tourists themselves. Interest groups are also important agents in tourism.

• It is useful to analyse the tourism agents and try to understand certain behaviours, relationships and developments. Especially for short-term planning, the pragmatic approach is to assume some sort of linearity and predictability. However, the discussion on complexity and chaos should raise awareness among professionals that they cannot control or predict tourism's evolution.

• The climate system has been modified by humans as a result of GHG emissions. These ‘trap’ solar energy and raise the temperature of the Earth's surface. This raised temperature is termed the natural greenhouse effect. Climate projections are associated with considerable uncertainties.

• One manifestation of uncertainty is the ability of the climate system to undergo abrupt and pervasive changes; such changes are termed ‘surprises’, and present a significant challenge to tourism and other policy makers and planners.

• Climate – and in particular temperature – is an important factor in destination choice, although recent research indicates that destination choice is more complex than assumed in current models.

• Several ‘climate–tourism hotspots’ – parts of the world where high tourist arrivals are forecast, or tourism will be a major contributor to the national economy, and signi...

Table of contents

• Coverpage
• Titelpage
• Copyright
• Contents
• Illustrative_Material
• Abbreviations
• Acknowledgements
• Preface
• 1 Introduction
• 2 The Tourism–Climate System
• 3 Case Studies of the Tourism–Climate System
• 4 An Overview of Tourism
• 5 Global and Regional Climate Change
• 6 Methodologies for Greenhouse Gas Accounting
• 7 Climate Change Mitigation Measures
• 8 Climate Change-related Risks and Adaptation
• 9 Climate Change Policies and Practices for Tourism
• 10 Conclusion
• References
• Index