Tourism and Trails

Cultural, Ecological and Management Issues

Dallen J. Timothy, Stephen W. Boyd

• Publisher: Channel View Publications
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781845414801
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Hospitality, Travel & Tourism Industry
• Index: Business

Trails and routes have been indispensable to travel and tourism over the centuries, helping to form the basis of mobility patterns of the past and the present. This book is the first to comprehensively examine these tourism trails from a tourism and recreation perspective. This cutting-edge volume is global in scope and discusses a wide range of natural, cultural and developed linear resources for tourism and recreation. The book is suitable for both researchers and students who are interested in cultural heritage-based tourism, recreation and leisure studies, landscape and change, human mobility, geography, environmental management, and broader interests in destination planning, development and management.

1 Introduction

Introduction

Trails and routes have been indispensable to travel and tourism over the centuries, helping to form the basis of mobility patterns of the past and the present. While they have been recognized elements of human landscapes, the contribution they have brought to tourism and recreation has been understated, hence the rationale for this book. Humans throughout history have blazed and utilized trails in their hunting, gathering, herding and trading pursuits, among which were built established routes that would see explorers, traders, migrants, pilgrims and later tourists. In some geographic settings, certain defined trails and routes would become well-trodden and utilized by many subsequent generations, providing a foundation on which a distinct tourism product would emerge (Moore & Shafer, 2001).

Many of these original pathways became the foundations for the multitudes of modern recreation and tourist trails of today (Hogan, 1998; Mulvaney, 2003). As well, some of the vast networks of contemporary highway systems are based upon footpaths and trails that were established centuries or millennia ago. Today, it would be hard to identify a region of the world which does not boast of a trail or route that is sold as part of a wider tourism or recreation experience. And yet, the attention given to this type of attraction has been, to date, minimal, except for some tangential mentions in broader studies or focused and descriptive case studies of either supply or demand. In short, there has not been a concerted attempt to bring together what is a rather disparate body of work by scholars on trails and routes; the book’s central aim is to address this lacuna. A useful starting point for the discussion is to examine the role that linear systems (e.g. paths, routes and trails) have played in assisting people to move around, including for purposes of leisure and pleasure.

Linear paths have long been an important tool for human mobility, and much of their appeal was associated as much with the pathway as it was with the destination to which it led. Hunting parties and traders were not required to reach a geographical goal. Instead, they often met the purpose of their departure along the way. During ancient and medieval times, prescribed byways were developed and utilized for transporting goods and people from one place to another. Roads and other corridors were even paved and signposted during the Roman era. Ancient adherents to Buddha’s teachings traveled along pilgrim circuits to visit the places associated with his birth, ministry and death (Singh, 2011). Medieval Christian pilgrimage, the oft-labeled ‘forerunner of modern-day tourism’ (Olsen & Timothy, 2006), was also a heavy user of prescribed trails that not only led to the end goal, the place of miracles, but also functioned to cleanse, humble and test the faith of spiritual sojourners with their arduous topographies and their great distances. The Grand Tour of Europe, from the middle of the 16th century to the early 19th century, popularized a certain ‘route’ or journey through many of the capital cities of antiquity and culture, which remains popular with today’s circuit travelers of Europe. Following the writings of early Grand Tour travelers came pre-ordained routes some would follow, including picturesque tours of England and Scotland (Aitchison et al., 2002; Towner, 1985).

Today, linear corridors are still important for travel both as transportation passageways and as attractions and resources for tourists and recreationists. One of the most pervasive types of tourism and recreation attractions today is trails, pathways and scenic routes and corridors. They provide a wide range of cultural and nature-based opportunities, which many communities and regions throughout the world are beginning to capitalize on and promote in their marketing efforts (Fai, 1989; Reader’s Digest, 2005; Yan et al., 2000). In most cases, trails and routes are seen by destinations as a tool for conserving natural and cultural environments, involving community members in decision-making, earning more tax dollars and regional revenue, and improving the quality of life of residents through employment and the development of a resource they too can utilize for their own enjoyment or transportation.

Trails have even secured some prominence in popular culture among modern-day travel writers and explorers. Michael Palin, for example, has not only created ‘new’ routes but rather taken the world on journeys from pole to pole, in circumnavigating the Pacific Rim, in crossing the Sahara, and forging pathways through Brazil, thereby opening new possibilities of circular and linear routes, pathways and journeys that today’s traveler may try to emulate to varying degrees. Similarly, the satirical writing of Bill Bryson in his novels Notes from a Small Island, Down Under and The Lost Continent, has allowed modern-day travelers to re-create portions or all of his journeys across Britain and Australia, and through small-town America, respectively, thereby reinvigorating for many the route or journey over the destination. Perhaps the best example of Bryson focusing on an established route or trail is his experience of walking parts of the Appalachian Trail, renowned as the longest footpath in the world, in his work A Walk in the Woods. The Appalachian Trail was established as early as 1925 in an era where the rambling movement was gaining prominence. While the authors do not have the intention to entertain the idea of becoming travel writers about routes and trails, they do believe there is a serious ‘academic story’ to tell about routes and trails and the journeys people have taken on them throughout history.

This first chapter starts the ‘journey’ by providing an overview of types of linear resources that are important tourist attractions and recreation resources and examines different types of trails, their role in the attractions system and important matters of scale that help define linear routes and trails. It is important at the outset of the book to provide useful definitions and meanings to what can be termed a ‘trail’ and a ‘route’. Following this, a typology of linear spaces is presented on other corridors that are important trails and routes, namely paths, bridleways, greenways and tour circuits.

A discussion of the scope, scale and settings of trails and routes is next. Tourism attractions and spaces can be points, areas or lines. This book focuses on lines, or linear resources, with the acknowledgement that point attractions and small areas can also be part of wider linear spaces. With respect to scale, a discussion is then presented on trails and routes that range from what can often be termed mega trails (covering many thousands of kilometers) to very short walking trails. The various settings of routes and trails are introduced, forming the basis of more in-depth discussions in later chapters on heritage, nature and mixed trail corridors in both urban and rural contexts. The chapter concludes by introducing a conceptual model around which the book and its contents are shaped. This model takes into consideration the supply and demand features of routes and their settings, scales, types, managerial structures and their wider macro policy environment.

Definitions and Meanings

The aim of this book is to look holistically at all types of human-created or human-delineated linear routes, although the meaning of each of these might differ depending on the location of the trail, its size and scale, and the types of resources being linked and utilized. The purpose of this section is to establish the types of trails that exist within the recreational and tourist attractions realm and to provide an explanation of each of these and their overlapping or divergent meanings.

Routes and trails

A trail is essentially a visible linear pathway of many varieties, which is evident on the ground and which may have at its roots an original and historical linear transport or travel function. A route, on the other hand, is generally more abstract and often based on a modern-day conceptualization and designation of a circuit or course that links similar natural or cultural features together into a thematic linear corridor. Scenic routes, or scenic roads, have become more important since the 1980s. These are designated roads and highways that pass through picturesque natural and cultural areas that would be of high aesthetic value to passersby (Schill & Schill, 1997). Scenic routes often follow natural features such as mountain ranges or coastlines and can invoke awe or nationalist sentiments as they focus on national symbolisms and national identity (Faggetter, 2001).

There is a wide range of definitions of the term ‘trail’, depending on which agency or individual is defining it and for what purpose (Jensen & Guthrie, 2006; Moore & Ross, 1998; Moore & Shafer, 2001). Most outdoor recreation-oriented definitions emphasize corridors in protected areas and other natural or cultural settings meant for foot, bicycle or horse traffic; these definitions often exclude motorized vehicle access and use, although there are many recreational trails that are specifically devoted to motorcycles and other off-road vehicles. The definition of trails used in this book is somewhat broader and includes all natural or human-made linear corridors in rural or urban areas designated as trails, paths or routes for the use of recreationists, tourists or travelers regardless of their mode of transportation. Thus, our description involves multiple scales and goes beyond purely a natural area definition to include cultural areas, cities, the countryside and other forms of transportation besides foot or bicycle.

In the United States (US) the National Recreation and Park Association classifies trails as greenway trails, park trails and connector trails, which link parks to work places and schools (Moore & Shafer, 2001: 4). Moore and his colleagues (see Moore & Driver, 2005; Moore & Ross, 1998; Moore & Shafer, 2001) provide a comprehensive overview of several types of linear resources, although their examination focuses overwhelmingly on outdoor nature trails and is not comprehensive from a tourism and cultural heritage perspective. As well, these classifications tend to be quite Americocentric and do not deal directly with issues of scale, resource utilization or the nuances of demand. Nonetheless, theirs is a useful starting point in understanding the wide variety of trails that are used by tourists and recreationists. Their typology, which includes traditional backcountry trails, recreational greenway trails, multi-use trails, water trails, and rail-trails, will be examined in much more detail in later chapters.

At first glance the title of this book might appear confusing to some people, depending largely on where they live and their own exposure to linear tourism and recreation resources, such as trails and scenic corridors. The terms trail, path, walkway, corridor and other similar words have different meanings in different locations. A footpath in the United Kingdom (UK), for example, usually refers to small ways in urban or rural areas that are relatively accessible and short in length. Such a phenomenon in the US would more commonly be referred to as a trail. Despite some differences, for ease of discussion, this book uses the words trail, corridor, route, path and others interchangeably to encompass all forms of linear, human-designated attractions, even though the authors are cognizant of many subtle and not so subtle differences between different terms. While recognizing this treatment of terms, the following sections set out to define other linear recreation and tourism corridors that are an important part of the global system of routes and trails.

Paths and bridleways

Paths, footpaths and tracks usually indicate narrow walkways that have been trodden or beaten by humans, animals, bicycles or other agents. They are a type of trail typically found in wilderness and rural areas, although many footpaths have also been labeled in towns and cities, frequently in parks or along streams and canals. Paths are used for recreational purposes, such as countryside strolling, or for transportation in towns or between villages. Bridleways or bridle trails are similar to pathways, except that they may also be used to ride or lead horses, and some bridleways are devoted solely to horseback riding (Beeton, 1999a; Countryside Panel, 1987).

Right of way is a related term more common in the UK and Europe than in North America or other parts of the world that refers to open-access paths that the public has a legal right to use at any time (Natural England, 2012; Wolfe, 1998). Rights of way in England are classified as footpaths for walking; bridleways, where horse riding and cycling are allowed in addition to walking; and byways, which are open to all traffic (Walker, 1996). The Countryside Commission, which was subsumed in 1999 and its responsibilities spread to other nature and rural agencies, had as its original purpose promoting public rights of way to develop ‘networks of well signposted and maintained routes throughout the countryside, giving ready access from towns, linking points of interest in the countryside, and coordinated with accommodation, car parks, publicity and guides’ (Walker, 1996: 28). In addition to rights of way paths, according to the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, the public is permitted to walk freely on mapped rural areas without having to remain on prescribed paths. At their disposal is approximately 865,000 hectares of open-access land (Natural England, 2012), which has opened up considerable debate in the UK and paved the way for more rambling options for day trippers and tourists.

There are several different official scales associated with rights of way. In 1989, the Countryside Commission in the UK established parish paths and community paths, local walks and rides, regional routes and national trails. The first type, parish paths and community paths, were marked from roadways and noted on ordinance survey maps. They were to be maintained and kept opened, but not promoted or interpreted, for their primary users: local residents wishing to wander about the countryside. These trails link local other trails or local roads to nearby villages, farms or churches (Curry, 1997; Walker, 1996). Local walks and rides were also marked and maintained but promoted for local use near people’s homes or in their holiday destinations. Car parks were provided, and many bestowed a full day’s range of hiking and other activities. Local walks can be found not only in rural areas but also in cities where they often have a cultural or historical bent. Regional routes are longer, themed routes that could require one or more days of travel and could be promoted as important tourist attractions, especially for domestic visitors. Finally, national trails (known as ‘long distance routes’ in Scotland) are long-distance corridors in England and Wales that are truly national in character, can be used on multi-day hikes by foot, horse or bicycle, and can be marketed as international tourist attractions (Curry, 1997; National Trails, 2012; Walker, 1996). Presently there are approximately 4000 km of national trails in England and Wales.

Greenways

Greenways are different from trails, although many greenways include recreational or transportation trails within them, and they often connect traditional parks and trails (Bowick, 2003; Moore et al., 1998; Mundet & Coenders, 2010). Little (1990) advocated for a very comprehensive definition of greenways, which included among its various manifestations the trails defined above. According to Little (1990: 1), greenways can be viewed rather broadly to include linear open spaces along natural corridors (e.g. rivers or ridgelines) or human-created features (e.g. railways, scenic roads, canals); natural or landscaped courses for bicycle or pedestrian use; open-space connectors that link nature preserves, parks and historic sites to one another or to populated areas; and linear parks specified as parkways or greenbelts. Little also recognized five specific, albeit overlapping, kinds of greenways based upon their location, their settings and their functions: urban riverside greenways, recreational greenways, ecologically important natural corridors, scenic and historic routes, and comprehensive greenway networks. Other observers have provided similar definitions and classifications, such as Fabos (1995), who defined greenways as linking corridors of various sizes and suggests a threefold typology: recreational greenways, ecologically significant greenways and heritage or cultural greenways. Much work on the subject has emphasized the role of greenways and their functions in urban areas. These include, but are not limited to, recreation, transportation routes, economic development, wildlife habitats, general beautification and storm-water management (Frauman & Cunningham, 2001; Jim & Chen, 2003; Moore & Shafer, 2001; Palau et al., 2012).

Tour circuits

Tour circuits are another type of route that has been largely overlooked in the travel literature. These courses are important in understanding tourism growth, regional dynamics and linkages, as well as traditions of market demand for a region and its products. While these are not designated, or officially recognized, linear routes as the trails and pathways heretofore discussed are, they are still important in that they are circuits that have evolved over the years into preferred networks that are traveled independently or on a coach and tour package. Backpackers and other independent travelers have commonly followed popular routes in different parts of the world. Drifter tourism has mythologized places and generated a ‘mobile subculture of international backpackers [who utilize] an almost entirely separate tourism infrastructure … [and] follow distinctive trails of their own’ (Westerhausen & Macbeth, 2003: 71). Many of these ‘Gringo trails’ or ‘Hippy trails’ can be found all over the world, but particularly in developing regions (Hampton, 2013).

‘Drifting’ through Southeast Asia is popular among backpacker tourists on three to six month journeys. Among the most favored backpacker destinations on these travel circuits are Bangkok, Koh Samui, Koh Phi Phi and Chiang Mai (Thailand); Luang Prabang, Vang Vieng and Vientiane (Laos); Hanoi, Dong Ha and Hué (Vietnam); Phnom Penh and Siem Reap/Angkor Wat (Cambodia); and Penang, Pangkor and Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) (Backpacker Guides, 2012). These are all considered ‘must-do’ destinations on the Southeast Asian backpacker circuit and include a mix of culture, nature and beaches. Similarly, a popular drifter/nomad circuit in Australia is known as the Harvest Trail, where backpackers travel around the country along known circuits, harvesting fruit and vegetables when they come in season in exchange for cash, places to sleep and food to eat (Cooper et al., 2004). This is touted as a work-as-you-go method of traveling and seeing Australia. Likewise, the ‘Hummus Trail’ is an informally prescribed network of sites, cities, villages, guesthouses and restaurants that are frequented by Israeli youth traveling through India and where there are many services catering specifically to the Israeli market. This provides a sense of solidarity among Israeli backpackers and in some ways provides the comforts of home in a very different environment (Enoch & Grossman, 2010). The medieval Grand Tour is sometimes said to be the ancient forerunner to today’s backpacker tourism; Grand Tour circuits also included well-trodden tour circuits and must-see destinations in Italy (e.g. Rome, Venice, Florence and Naples) and other parts of Europe (Brodsky-Porges, 1981; Towner, 1985).

In addition to backpacker routes, there are also recognized tour circuits used by tour companies and individual travelers on a regular basis and these take on many spatial forms including day trips, route trips, and multi-nodal trips (Zillinger, 2007). Many of these are based on point-to-point networks of capital cities, and in most cases these link together famous sites that are known to appeal to mass tourists. Common tour circuits in Western Europe include visits to Amsterdam, Brussels and Paris in conjunction with London and Rhine River cruises. Attendance at the once-a-decade passion play at Oberammergau, Germany, is usually accompanied by visits to the salt mines at Berchtesgaden and nearby Salzburg, Austria. Another emerging trend is Christian pilgrimage cruises that follow the routes of ancient apostles throughout the Mediterranean. Thousands of such unofficial, albeit popular, tour circuits exist all over the world. However, they are not the main focus of this book, although they will be alluded to throughout.

Scope, Scales and Settings of Routes and Trails

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