Examining Education, Media, and Dialogue under Occupation

The Case of Palestine and Israel

Ilham Nasser, Lawrence N. Berlin, Shelley Wong

• Publisher: Multilingual Matters
• Year: 2011
• Print ISBN: 9781847694263
• eBook ISBN: 9781847694294
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Educational Policy

This book is an in-depth examination of education and media under occupation. The contributors to this volume engage dialogue to explore these domains and their roles and functioning under occupation while keeping an eye toward resolution, using the on-going conflict between Palestine and Israel as the focus. The uniqueness of this collection is not limited to the willingness of its authors to investigate topics that have often been left out of the mainstream, but that they actually enter into dialogue with one another. Education and media are exemplified as domains that can either maintain the status quo of oppression when used by policymakers and governments to do so or can be utilized as mechanisms for change and peacemaking. These contradictory roles are highlighted throughout this book by multiple voices.

Part 1

Education

Chapter 1

Palestinian Education under Occupation: Successes and Challenges

K. Shakhshir

Introduction

It is a common belief among Palestinians that education is extremely important for social mobility. This motivation stems from the fact that education is considered a necessity for survival because of the harsh and adverse political and economic conditions under which the Palestinians live. Accordingly, education plays a signif cant role in the lives of Palestinians for cultural, political and economic reasons, irrespective of whether the Palestinians are living on their soil (historic Palestine) or in the Diaspora. It is considered by most Palestinians as the only available alternative to survive (Hallaj, 1980; Yusuf, 1979; Shaath, 1972; Tahir, 1985). The advanced levels of education acquired by the Palestinian people afforded them protection in many Arab and non-Arab countries (Hallaj, 1980). Others attribute the high motivational level of the Palestinians to the versatility education provided them to seek professions that enabled them to acquire and hold gainful employment for themselves and their large families in the camps (Shaath, 1972). Yusuf (1979), however, suggested that the high enrollment of Palestinian children in schools is attributed to the fact that education provided them with financial and psychological security. Accordingly, it may be stated that Palestinian education has unique merits, which are related to being under occupation for more than 40 years, the struggle for independence and for educating females beyond the levels observed in the Arab world.

Historical Background

Official public education in Palestine started in 1869 when the Ottoman education system was introduced (Palestine was under the Ottoman ruling from 1516 to 1917). This system stipulated that education should be free and compulsory at the elementary level. Furthermore, towns with populations of at least 500 residents were entitled to have their own elementary schools, whereas those with 1000 residents were entitled to have preparatory schools. Only district centers were allowed to have secondary schools. General examinations were held at the end of the school year and the school curriculum covered subjects such as reading, history, the Koran, mathematics and Turkish language (Tibawi, 1961). Teaching during this stage was restricted to academic subjects and excluded vocational teaching.

During the British mandate over Palestine (1917–1948), the educational system was divided into four phases from age six years to 14 years: kindergarten, lower elementary school, upper-elementary school and lower-secondary school, (Tibawi, 1956). Vocational education was first introduced to Palestine in 1932, Al-Khudori Agricultural College was established, which admitted students aged 14 years (8th and 9th grade). The Arab Commercial Public School was established in Haifa in 1937; it catered to students aged 12 years, for a three-year term. The total number of Palestinian students enrolled in school in (1945–1946) reached 82, 775, of which 20% were female (Statistical Abstract of Palestine, 1943; Tibawi, 1956).

Following the first Arab-Israeli War in 1948 and the subsequent dismantling of historic Palestine as the result of the creation of the State of Israel, the remaining segments of Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip) were subjected to Jordanian (West Bank) and Egyptian (Gaza Strip) educational systems. During the period 1964–1965, the total number of students in the West Bank was 195,000, of which 37% were females enrolled in the elementary and preparatory stages (Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 1951–1965). In the Gaza Strip, the number of students enrolled in public and United Nations Welfare Agency (UNRWA) schools was on the rise. In 1950, there were 19,114 students enrolled in UNRWA schools, which increased to 47,258 in 1958, and finally reached 67,189 students in 1967. The ratio of female students to the total student population equaled 40% in the year 1965 (UNRWA Yearbook, 1989). In 1967, shortly before Israel occupied all of historic Palestine in addition to the Syrian Golan Heights, the educational ladder was completed and articulated to span 12 years of free and compulsory preuniversity education. The education system remained intact during the occupation period (1967–1994). The occupation did notend in 1994 but the Palestinians gained control of their educational system for the first time after the Oslo Accords were signed with Israel in 1993. The continuation of occupation, however, did not ease the obstacles that hindered the educational system such as collective punishment, incarceration of students and teachers and frequent closures of educational institutions, especially public schools (Shakhshir, 1994).

Palestinian Education System

Following the establishment of the Palestinian Ministry of Education in 1994, the educational system in Palestine witnessed significant positive developments. The first was the development of the Palestinian school curriculum, school textbooks, and teacher training programs. Among the features in the new curriculum is that it includes the outlines of the objectives, content, extracurricular activities and notes particular to every unit in the textbook. The second area of improvement in the Palestinian educational system was in the rapid growth in the number of teachers, classrooms and schools that were rented or constructed. Indeed, the total number of public schools increased from 1084 in 1994/1995 to 1725 in 2005/2006. Likewise, the number of public school teachers increased from 14,938 in 1994 to 35,013 in 2006, and the number of classrooms almost doubled from 11,817 to 22,082 during the same period. Table 1.1 shows the number of students, teachers, classrooms and schools in the Palestinian educational system in 2005–2006.

For higher education, the Palestinian educational system includes 11 universities, 13 colleges (four-year programs) and 18 community colleges (two-year programs). They include about 138,000 students in 2005–2006 (PNA, Ministry of Education, 2006a). Of the total, about 90% are enrolled in universities, while only 10% are enrolled in community colleges and university colleges. The Palestinian universities offer almost all disciplines at the undergraduate level, including medicine, pharmacy, engineering, the arts, the humanities and law. However, most of the programs are related to the humanities, teaching and the sciences, while advanced professional programs are limited to 12% as presented in Table 1.2.

Enrollments by university degree show that 88% of the students in higher education are in bachelor (BA) degree programs, but only 2% of the total are in graduate (master degree) programs. Meanwhile, 10% are enrolled in community college diploma (comparable to Associate Degree) programs. There are more than 30 different programs of study at the master's level in Palestinian universities. The Palestinian universities system is a credit hour with semester system with small classes and lectures taught in both Arabic and English with mainly American textbooks. The funding of higher education institutions comes from students' fees, the Palestinian Authority budget and Arab and European sources.

The educational system in Palestine can be divided according to the following three segments, but with identical curricula. Schools within the Ministry of Education system comprises approximately 70% of the total number of students and offers free education at the basic cycle (Grades 1–10), and for a nominal cost for secondary students. These schools are by the government's budget. UNRWA schools offer free education to refugee students at the basic cycle (Grades 1–9). Private and NGO schools, which comprise 6% of the total number of students, offer education at the kindergarten, basic and secondary cycle levels at a high cost to the student. Finally, the community colleges and universities account for 24% of the total Palestinian student population. Most of the Palestinian universities operate as NGOs and charge moderate fees. There exists only one private university (Arab American University) and two governmental universities.

Table 1.2 Percentages of students enrolled in Palestinian higher-education institutions distributed according to specialization and degree

Indicators	Percentage
Enrollment in teaching specializations	28
Enrollment in medicine, engineering & health	12
Enrollment in other specializations	60
Community college students	10
Bachelors and higher-diploma students	88
Masters students	2

Source: Ministry of Education Statistics, Ramallah, Palestine 2003‑2006

Women and Education

The Palestinian educational system has its own set of successes and challenges concerning the gender issue. First, there is equal opportunity for both genders to access education at all levels of education, plus an equal opportunity for employment in the educational system. In addition, gender awareness has been incorporated within curriculum materials, textbooks and extracurricular activities. Nondiscrimination according to gender has been incorporated in the laws, regulations, schools practices and the public consciousness as reported by Shakhshir (2003). Second, females view the teaching profession in Palestine positively. A study indicated that female teachers, who make up the majority of teachers in Palestine, were generally satisfied with their students' behavior in school, reporting no cases of violence between students and most students adhering to school regulations. According to the study (Shakhshir, 2003) whenever a problem arises, they said it was resolved quickly.

When asked, some female students see teaching as one of the best professions in Palestinian society due to teaching's main attractions, as it allows for interaction with others. Other females see it as an opportunity to acquire new skills and a chance to apply what they have learnt to real life. Through teaching, female students see a chance to restore the positive image of educators (Shakhshir et al., 2006). The study suggests that there were negative attitudes existing toward the teaching profession by Palestinian male teachers. Unlike the females' perception, male teachers considered teachers' salaries to be too low and not sufficient to cover daily necessities. They also claim that teachers have lost their good image as well as the respect and admiration of their students in recent times. They feel that the teaching profession is exhausting bec ause teachers are subject to confrontations, stress and anger (Shakhshir et al., 2006).

Third, the share of female students enrolled in the different levels of education is equal to or better than that of the males at all levels. For example, 51% of enrolled students in basic and secondary education are female, and 52% of the enrolled students in higher education are females. In addition, 53% of teachers working in the educational system are female and 98% are employed in kindergartens. Fourth, there are a significant number of women in the informal educational system including kindergartens and social committees to eliminate illiteracy. Kindergarten (preschool age children 3–5) is still not part of the educational system. The official educational system starts at the age of six for first grade through 12th grade, while children under the age of six are enrolled in private and NGO schools, which are completely dominated by females.

There are some negative aspects pertaining to the gender issue in Palestine. For example, the enrollment of female students in vocational secondary schools is limited to 13% of students enrolled in vocational schools. Furthermore, females constitute no more than 20% of the faculty and staff employed in higher education institutions (Shakhshir, 1996). Considering the females faculty members holding doctoral degrees and working in the Palestinian universities, this percentage drops to only 10% of the total faculty members. This is due to the fact that doctoral degrees are not offered in Palestine and students have to leave the country that is not common for single women and come up with financial means to support travel, tuition and accommodation in foreign countries.

Another disadvantage is related to the specialization of females. The majority of females enrolled in higher education are majoring in educational and arts disciplines compared to males who prefer medicine, engineering, pharmacology and the sciences. For example, while females make up about 50% of teachers, they only account for 20% of professions such as dentists, journalists, lawyers, chemists and civil engineers, as shown in Table 1.3.

In a study conducted by the author, there are still some traditional obstacles to the equality of women. Parents encouraged their sons to study professional majors but urged their daughters to become teachers despite of the daughter's dislike of the profession or her superior academic performance. Teaching is considered as the most suitable profession for a girl, especially after marriage when working hours allow for taking care of her family and home. In addition, the majority of the girls themselves view teaching as a respectable profession and they prefer it to other professions (Shakhshir et al., 2006).

Education under Siege and Occupation

Serious problems have been created by the Israeli occupation of Palestine from 1967 until today. They escalated during the first Intifada (civilian uprising) from 1988 to 1993, and resumed after the second Intifada (from 2000 till now). These include collective and partial closures of educational institutions at all levels, frequencies and durations (up to three years). This section highlights issues created by the Israeli occupation during different periods.

Table 1.3 Gender indicators in the Palestinian educational system

Indicators for female	Percentage
Female students enrolled in basic and Secondary Education	51
Female students enrolled in higher education institutions	52
Female students enrolled in vocational secondary schools	13
Female teachers working in basic and secondary education	53
Female teachers working in kindergartens (two to fi ve years)	98
Female teachers working in all levels of education	50
Female teachers working in higher education	20
Females holding doctoral degrees and working in universities	10
Females in advanced professions	20

Source: Compiled by the author based on Palestinian Ministry of Education Statistics

The fir...

Table of contents

• Coverpage
• Titlepage
• CRITICAL LANGUAGE AND LITERACY STUDIES
• Dedication
• Copyright
• Contents
• Contributors
• Acknowledgements
• Preface
• Maps
• Introduction
• Part 1: Education
• Part 2: Media
• Part 3: Dialogue
• References
• Index