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MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES for the 21st Century
Peter F. Drucker
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MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES for the 21st Century
Peter F. Drucker
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About This Book
Peter F. Drucker discusses how the new paradigms of management have changed and will continue to change our basic assumptions about the practices and principles of management. Forward-looking and forward-thinking, Management Challenges for the 21st Century combines the broad knowledge, wide practical experience, profound insight, sharp analysis, and enlightened common sense that are the essence of Drucker's writings and "landmarks of the managerial profession." -- Harvard Business Review
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1
Management's
New Paradigms
Why Assumptions Matter ⢠Management Is Business Management ⢠The One Right Organization ⢠The One Right Way to Manage People ⢠Technologies and End-Users Are Fixed and Given ⢠Managementâs Scope Is Legally Defined ⢠Managementâs Scope Is Politically Defined ⢠The Inside Is Managementâs Domain
Introduction
Why Assumptions Matter
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT REALITY are the PARADIGMS of a social science, such as management. They are usually held subconsciously by the scholars, the writers, the teachers, the practitioners in the field. Yet those assumptions largely determine what the disciplineâscholars, writers, teachers, practitionersâassumes to be REALITY.
The disciplineâs basic assumptions about reality determine what it focuses on. They determine what a discipline considers âfacts,â and indeed what it considers the discipline itself to be all about. The assumptions also largely determine what is being disregarded in a discipline or is being pushed aside as an âannoying exception.â They decide both what in a given discipline is being paid attention to and what is neglected or ignored.
A good example is what happened to the most insightful of the earlier management scholars: Mary Parker Follett (1868â1933).* Because her assumptions did not fit the realities which the budding discipline of management assumed in the 1930s and 1940s, she became a ânonpersonâ even before her death in 1932, with her work practically forgotten for twenty-five years or more. And yet we now know that her basic assumptions regarding society, people and management were far closer to reality than those on which the management people then based themselvesâand still largely base themselves today.
Yet, despite their importance, the assumptions are rarely analyzed, rarely studied, rarely challengedâindeed rarely even made explicit.
For a social discipline such as management the assumptions are actually a good deal more important than are the paradigms for a natural science. The paradigmâthat is, the prevailing general theoryâhas no impact on the natural universe. Whether the paradigm states that the sun rotates around the earth or that, on the contrary, the earth rotates around the sun has no effect on sun and earth. A natural science deals with the behavior of OBJECTS. But a social discipline such as management deals with the behavior of PEOPLE and HUMAN INSTITUTIONS. Practitioners will therefore tend to act and to behave as the disciplineâs assumptions tell them to. Even more important, the reality of a natural science, the physical universe and its laws, do not change (or if they do only over eons rather than over centuries, let alone over decades). The social universe has no ânatural lawsâ of this kind. It is thus subject to continuous change. And this means that assumptions that were valid yesterday can become invalid and, indeed, totally misleading in no time at all.
Everyone these days preaches the team as the ârightâ organization for every task. (I myself began to preach teams as early as 1954 and especially in my 1973 book Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices.) Underlying the present orthodoxy regarding teams is a basic assumption held practically by all management theorists and by most practitioners since the earliest days of thinking about organization, that is, since Henri Fayol in France and Walter Rathenau in Germany around 1900: There isâor, at least, there MUST beâONE right organization. And what matters most is not whether the team is indeed âthe answerâ (so far there is not too much evidence for it), but, as will be discussed a little later, that the basic assumption of the one right organization is no longer tenable.
What matters most in a social discipline such as management are therefore the basic assumptions. And a CHANGE in the basic assumptions matters even more.
Since the study of management first beganâand it truly did not emerge until the 1930sâTWO SETS of assumptions regarding the REALITIES of management have been held by most scholars, most writers and most practitioners:
One set of assumptions underlies the DISCIPLINE of management:
- Management is Business Management.
- There isâor there must beâONE right organization structure.
- There isâor there must beâONE right way to manage people.
Another set of assumptions underlies the PRACTICE of Management:
- Technologies, markets and end-uses are given.
- Managementâs scope is legally defined.
- Management is internally focused.
- The economy as defined by national boundaries is the âecologyâ of enterprise and management.
For most of this periodâat least until the early 1980sâall but the first of these assumptions were close enough to reality to be operational, whether for research, for writing, for teaching or for practicing management. By now all of them have outlived their usefulness. They are close to being caricatures. They are now so far removed from actual reality that they are becoming obstacles to the Theory and even more serious obstacles to the Practice of management. Indeed, reality is fast becoming the very opposite of what these assumptions claim it to be. It is high time therefore to think through these assumptions and to try to formulate the NEW ASSUMPTIONS that now have to inform both the study and the practice of management.
I
Management Is Business Management
For most people, inside and outside management, this assumption is taken as self-evident. Indeed management writers, management practitioners and the laity do not even hear the word âmanagementâ; they automatically hear BUSINESS MANAGEMENT.
This assumption regarding the universe of management is of fairly recent origin. Before the 1930s the few writers and thinkers who concerned themselves with managementâbeginning with Frederick Winslow Taylor around the turn of the century and ending with Chester Barnard just before World War IIâall assumed that business management is just a subspecies of general management and basically no more different from the management of any other organization than one breed of dogs is from another breed of dogs.
The first practical application of management theory did not take place in a business but in nonprofits and government agencies. Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856â1915), the inventor of âScientific Management,â in all probability also coined the terms âManagementâ and âConsultantâ in their present meaning. On his calling card he identified himself as âConsultant to Managementââand he explained that he had intentionally chosen these new and strange terms to shock potential clients into awareness of his offering something totally new. But Taylor did not cite a business but the nonprofit Mayo Clinic as the âperfect exampleâ of âScientific Managementâ in his 1912 testimony before the Congress which first made the United States management-conscious. And the most publicized application of Taylorâs âScientific Managementâ (though aborted by union pressure) was not in a business but in the government-owned and government-run Watertown Arsenal of the U.S. Army.
The first job to which the term âManagerâ in its present meaning was applied was not in business. It was the City Managerâan American invention of the early years of the century. The first conscious and systematic application of âmanagement principlesâ similarly was not in a business. It was the reorganization of the U.S. Army in 1901 by Elihu Root (1845â1937), Theodore Rooseveltâs Secretary of War.
The first Management CongressâPrague in 1922âwas not organized by business people but by Herbert Hoover, then U.S. Secretary of Commerce, and Thomas Masaryk, a world-famous historian and the founding President of the new Czechoslovak Republic. And Mary Parker Follett, whose work on Management began at roughly the same time, never differentiated between business management and nonbusiness management. She talked of the management of organizations, to all of which the same principles applied.
What led to the identification of Management with Business Management was the Great Depression with its hostility to business and its contempt for business executives. In order not to be tarred with the business brush, management in the public sector was rechristened âPublic Administrationâ and proclaimed a separate disciplineâwith its own university departments, its own terminology, its own career ladder. At the same timeâand for the same reasonâwhat had begun as a study of management in the rapidly growing hospital (e.g., by Raymond Sloan, the younger brother of GMâs Alfred Sloan) was split off as a separate discipline and christened âHospital Administration.â
Not to be called âmanagementâ was, in other words, âpolitical correctnessâ in the Depression years.
In the postwar period, however, the fashion turned. By 1950 BUSINESS had become a âgood wordââlargely the result of the performance during World War II of American business management. And then very soon âbusiness managementâ became âpolitically correctâ as a field of study, above all. And ever since, management has remained identified in the public mind as well as in academia with âbusiness management.â
Now, however, we are beginning to unmake this sixty-year-old mistakeâas witness the renaming of so many âbusiness schoolsâ into âschools of management,â the rapidly growing offerings in ânonprofit managementâ by these schools, the emergence of âexecutive management programsâ recruiting both business and nonbusiness executives or the emergence of Departments of âPastoral Managementâ in divinity schools.
But the assumption that Management is Business Management still persists. It is therefore important to assertâand to do so loudlyâthat Management is NOT Business Managementâany more than, say, Medicine is Obstetrics.
There are, of course, differences in management between different organizationsâMission defines Strategy, after all, and Strategy defines Structure. There surely are differences between managing a chain of retail stores and managing a Catholic diocese (though amazingly fewer than either chain stores or bishops believe); between managing an air base, a hospital and a software company. But the greatest differences are in the terms individual organizations use. Otherwise the differences are mainly in application rather than in principles. There are not even tremendous differences in tasks and challenges. The executives of all these organizations spend, for instance, about the same amount of their time on people problemsâand the people problems are almost always the same. Ninety percent or so of what each of these organizations is concerned with is generic. And the differences in respect to the last 10 percent are no greater between businesses and nonbusinesses than they are between businesses in different industries, for example, between a multinational bank and a toy manufacturer. In every organizationâbusiness or nonbusiness alikeâonly the last 10 percent of management has to be fitted to the organizationâs specific mission, its specific culture, its specific history and its specific vocabulary.
That Management is not Business Management is particularly important as the growth sector of a developed society in the 21st century is most unlikely to be businessâin fact, business has not even been the growth sector of the 20th century in developed societies. A far smaller proportion of the working population in every developed country is now engaged in economic activity, that is, in âbusiness,â than it was a hundred years ago. Then virtually everybody in the working population made his or her living in economic activities (e.g., farming). The growth sectors in the 20th century in developed countries have been in ânonbusinessââin government, in the professions, in health care, in education. As an employer and a source of livelihood business has been shrinking steadily for a hundred years (or at least since World War I). And insofar as we can predict, the growth sector in the 21st century in developed countries will not be âbusiness,â that is, organized economic activity. It is likely to be the nonprofit social sector. And that is also the sector where management is today most needed and where systematic, principled, theory-based management can yield the greatest results the fastest.
The first Conclusion of this analysis of the ASSUMPTIONS that must underlie Management to make productive both its study and its practice is therefore:
Management is the specific and distinguishing organ of any and all organizations.
II
The One Right Organization
Concern with management and its study began with the sudden emergence of large organizationsâbusiness, governmental civil service, the large standing armyâwhich was the novelty of late-19th-century society.
And from the very beginning more than a century ago, the study of organization has rested on one assumption:
There isâor there must beâone right organization.
What is presented as the âone right organizationâ has changed more than once. But the search for the one right organization has continued and continues today.
Organization structure in business was first tackled in France around the turn of the century, by Henri Fayol (1841â1925), the head of one of Europeâs largest but also totally disorganized enterprises, a coal-mining company. (He did not, however, publish his book until 1916.) Practitioners were also the first ones concerned with organization in the United States and at about the same time: John J. Rockefeller, Sr.; J. P. Morgan, and especially Andrew Carnegie (who still deserves to be studied and who had the most lasting impact). A little later Elihu Root applied organization theory to the U.S. Army, as already mentionedâand it is hardly coincidence that Root had been Carnegieâs legal adviser. At the same time, Georg Siemens (1839â1901), the founder in 1870 of the Deutsche Bank, used (around 1895) the organization concepts of his friend Fayol to save the rapidly floundering Siemens Electric Company that his cousin Werner Siemens (1816â1892) had founded but had left leaderless at his death.
Yet the need for organization structure was by no means obvious to everybody in these early years.
Frederick Winslow Taylor did not see it at all. Until his death he wrote and talked of âthe owners and their helpers.â And it was on this concept, that is, on a non-structure, that Henry Ford (1863â1947), up to the time of his death, tried to run what for many years (until the late 1920s) was the worldâs largest manufacturing company.
It was World War I that made clear the need for a formal organization structure. But it was also World War I that showed that Fayolâs (and Carnegieâs) functional structure was not the one right organization. Immediately after World War I first Pierre S. Du Pont (1870â1954) and then Alfred Sloan (1875â1966) developed Decentralization. And now, in the last few years, we have come to tout the âTeamâ as the one right organization for pretty much everything.
By now, however, it should have become clear that there is no such thing as the one right organization. There are only organizations, each of which has distinct strengths, distinct limitations and specific applications. It has become clear that organization is not an absolute. It is a tool for making people productive in working together. As such, a given organization structure fits certain tasks in certain conditions and at certain times.
One hears a great deal today about âthe end of hierarchy.â This is blatant nonsense. In any institution there has to be a final authority, that is, a âbossââsomeone who can make the final decisions and who can expect them to be obeyed. In a situation of common perilâand every institution is likely to encounter it sooner or laterâsurvival of all depends on clear command. If the ship goes down, the captain does not call a meeting, the captain gives an order. And if the ship is to be saved, everyone must obey the order, must know exactly where to go and what to do, and do it without âparticipationâ or argument. âHierarchy,â and the unquestioning acceptance of it by everyone in the organization, is the only hope in a crisis.
Other situations within the same institution require deliberation. Others still require teamworkâand so on.
Organization Theory assumes that institutions are homogeneous and that, therefore, the entire enterprise should be organized the same way.
Fayol assumed a âtypical manufacturing enterprise.â Alfred Sloan in the 1920s organized each of General Motorsâ decentralized divisions exactly the same way. Thirty years later, in the massive reorganization of the (American) General Electric Company in the early 1950s, it was still considered âheresyâ to organize a small unit of a few dozen researchers engaged solely on development work for the U.S. Air Force differently from huge âdepartmentsâ employing several thousand people and manufacturing a standard product, for example, a toaster for the kitchen. The small development group was actually saddled with a manufacturing manager, a personnel manager, a financial manager, and a public relations manager.
But in any one enterpriseâprobably even in Fayolâs âtypical manufacturing companyââthere is need for a number of different organization structures coexisting side by side.
Managing foreign currency exposure is an increasingly criticalâand increasingly difficultâtask in a world economy. It requires total centralization. No one unit of the enterprise can be permitted to handle its own foreign currency exposures. But in the same enterprise servicing the customer, especially in high-tech areas, requires almost complete local autonomyâgoing way beyond traditional decentralization. Each of the individual service people has to be the âboss,â with the rest of the organization taking its direction from them.
Certain forms of research require a strict functional organization with all specialists âplaying their instrumentâ by themselves. Other kinds of research, however, especially research that involves decision making at an early stage (e.g., some pharmaceutical research), require teamwork from the beginning. And the two kinds of research often occur side by side and in the same research organization.
The belief that there must be one right organization is closely tied to the fallacy that Management is Business Management. If earlier students of management had not been bunkered by this fallacy but had looked at nonbusinesses, they would soon have found that there are vast differences in organization structure according to the nature of the task.
A Catholic diocese is organized very differently from an opera. A modern army is organized very differently from a hospital. But also, typically, these institutions have more than one organization structure. In the Catholic diocese, for instance, the bishop is the absolute authority in certain areas, a constitutional monarch in others (severely limited, for instance, in his right to discipline his diocesan clergy) and virtually powerless in othersâhe cannot, for instance, visit a parish in his diocese unless the parish priest invites him to do so. The bishop appoints the members of the diocesan courtâthough custom indicates which of his clerics are eligible for such an appointment. But once that court is appointed it, rather than the bishop, has exclusive jurisdiction in a great many areas.
There are indeed some âprinciplesâ of organization.
One is surely that organization has to be transparent. People have to know and have to understand the organization structure they are supposed to work in. This sounds obviousâbut it is far too often violated in most institutions (even in t...