North European Symposium for Archaeological Textiles X

Eva B. Andersson Strand, Margarita Gleba, Ulla Mannering, Cherine Munkholt, Maj Ringgard, Margarita Gleba, Ulla Mannering

• Publisher: Oxbow Books
• Year: 2009
• eBook ISBN: 9781782973522
• Topic: Tecnología e ingeniería
• Subtopic: Ciencias de los materiales

The NESAT symposium has grown from the first meeting in 1981 which was attended by 23 scholars, to over 100 at the tenth meeting that took place in Copenhagen in 2008, with virtually all areas of Europe represented. The 50 papers from the conference presented here show the vibrance of the study of archaeological textiles today. Examples studied come from the Bronze Age, Neolithic, the Iron Age, Roman, Viking, the Middle Ages and post-Medieval, and from a wide range of countries including Norway, Czech Republic, Poland, Greece, Germany, Lithuania, Estonia and the Netherlands. Modern techniques of analysis and examination are also discussed.

1 Experimental Textile Archaeology

by Eva Andersson Strand

Experimental archaeology is a method that can provide important insights into archaeological research. This is done primarily by practical tests performed on the basis of questions related to archaeological data.

Experimental archaeology has been seen as having developed within the positivistic research tradition, which was current in processual archaeology in the 1960s and 1970s (Brattli and Johnsen 1989, 49; Olsen 1997, 53, 59–62). According to this tradition, archaeological material had to be interpreted via procedures similar to those of the natural sciences with the aim of reaching objective knowledge without subjective influences. This way of arguing has been criticized in the post-processual research tradition of the 1980s. The criticism was directed towards the idea of experimental archaeology as a method of conducting objective studies. One of the arguments today is that designs for experiments are influenced by subjective values, which will affect their outcome. However, this critique was aimed at archaeology in general, implying that archaeological interpretations can hardly avoid the influence of cultural, economical and political ideology (Trigger 1993, 454–457). At the same time, and perhaps as a consequence of this criticism, various scholars began to question what constituted experimental archaeology (e.g. Coles 1983, 79–81; Johansson 1983, 81–83; Malina 1983, 69–78), and the subject of defining and developing experimental archaeology was debated (e.g. Johansson 1987, 2–4). Several attempts at defining the concept were made; some of them proposed to divide experimental archaeology into different topics such as experiments within archaeology and experimental archaeology (Olausson 1987, 7). Today, experimental archaeology is understood as a very wide term and may be seen as an umbrella under which several activities are undertaken. The three most important, in my opinion, are:

•	Ethnographic Studies
•	Experience Archaeology
•	Experimental Archaeology (this is also what makes the definition complicated as experimental archaeology can be seen as both the umbrella and a defined method).

The three approaches are also sometimes used in combination and it can be difficult to separate them from one another. All three approaches are extremely valuable for textile research, and by using and applying the information and/or results to archaeological material, we can fill important lacuna in not only textile archaeology, but also archaeology in general.

Using experimental archaeology as a method in textile research has a long tradition but it is still important to develop and systematize the concept and definition of ‘experimental textile archaeology’ and to discuss its limitations and possibilities.

Ethnographic Studies

As archaeologists working with prehistoric textiles and textile techniques, we have the advantage that many of the techniques that were used during prehistoric times are still in use today. Through ethnographic sources, we often have knowledge of tool functions and different processes, such as fibre preparation, spinning and weaving. Experimental archaeology is closely connected to the use of ethnographic parallels in archaeology. Both experimental archaeology and ethno-archaeology are seen as having being developed within the same research tradition, which is related to the use of analogies in archaeology. As some handicrafts known from prehistory continue to be practised today, valuable information is readily available and much has already been recorded. For example, in the 1950s, the Norwegian researcher Marta Hoffman began her work on the warp-weighted loom by focusing on the living traditions of its use in the Nordic countries (Hoffmann 1974). Ethnographic knowledge of textile production and tools, like that of the warp-weighted loom (e.g. Crowfoot 1931; Sylwan 1941, 109–125), has played an important role for the understanding of ancient spinning and weaving, and in attempts to revitalize ancient textile technology.

The use of ethnographic parallels has been criticized in that the ethnographic records represent situations far removed in both time and space from the ancient context under examination (Coles 1979, 39). Regrettably, this criticism has not been discussed specifically within textile research and ought to be considered in this field as well.

One of the challenges one has to be aware of is that craftspeople today do not always work with the same type of tools or techniques, or even the same type of fibre material as in the past. For example, the weavers whom Martha Hoffmann worked together with used very heavy loom weights, compared to loom weights from, for instance, the Bronze Age Mediterranean. It is also important to remember that different regions have their own traditions; for example, on Crete spinners today spin on a suspended low whorl spindle, while on Iceland spinners often spin on a high whorl spindle.

Experience Archaeology

This approach has a reputation of not being a scientific method since it cannot be used for specific archaeological interpretations; nevertheless, it is a highly important approach. Textile technology should be taught in all basic courses in archaeology in the same way students learn about flint napping or bronze casting. It is necessary for all archaeologists to acquire ‘experience’ of different techniques and types of textiles. It is our responsibility to teach the student why this knowledge is important, and how it can be used. It is not enough to allow them to merely attempt spinning on a spindle and weaving on a warp-weighted loom for a couple of hours. This knowledge and experience is strictly necessary and important to work within all in other archaeological fields.

Experimental Archaeology

An important component in the methods of experimental archaeology is the testing of function and efficiency of textile tools and equipment (Peacock 2001). As such, experimental archaeology forms a link between textiles and textile tools and contributes to a better understanding of textile production and its complexity. The results from experiments form an important basis for the interpretation of the function of different tools and for the evaluation of the types of textiles that have been produced at different sites and regions. These results can also help visualise textiles in places, where none have been preserved.

In the Textile and Tools – Texts and Contexts research programme at the Danish National Research Foundation’s Centre for Textile Research, we have conducted several experiments and used experimental archaeology as an important method.

One of our missions in the research programme has been to develop experimental textile archaeology (http://ctr.hum.ku.dk/research/tools_and_textiles_/). The reason for developing our methods within experimental archaeology is that we want the results to be reliable, clear, and easy to relate to. It was therefore essential from the beginning to make guidelines for our experiments. These guidelines are as follows:

•	The primary parameter to be investigated is the function of tools
•	The raw materials are selected according to our knowledge of Bronze Age fibres and work processes
•	The tools are reconstructed as precise copies of archaeological artefacts
•	Each test is to be performed by at least two skilled craftspeople
•	Every new test should be preceded by some practice time
•	All processes must be documented
•	All products must be analysed by external experts

Experimental tool testing combined with knowledge of fibres and tools in the period under investigation can help us understand how and for what purpose specific textile tools may have been used. It is essential that tests are performed by several skilled craftspeople, otherwise it will not be possible to evaluate if the end product is affected by the tool or by the craftsperson.

Whatever the primary parameter to be investigated, thorough control and evaluation of every step of an experiment is essential. The raw materials should be selected according to the knowledge of the given period and area, and the tools tested should be reconstructed as precise copies of archaeological artefacts.

By testing textile tools we can obtain valuable information about tool function, their qualities and limitations, and the amounts of time consumed in the various production stages. For example, systematic spinning experiments with suspended spindles have demonstrated that it is primarily the fibre quality, and the weight and the diameter of the spindle whorl that affect the finished product, i.e. the spun yarn.

The tests also demonstrated that variations within a specific tool type determine variations in the final textile product (Andersson 2003; Mårtensson 2007; Andersson Strand and Nosch forthcoming), and the variations in time consumption connected to the use of the tools (Andersson et al. 2008). Experiments have also demonstrated that not only the weight, but also the thickness of a loom weight plays an important role in the weaving process, and hence that the choice of loom weights influences the fabric (Mårtensson et al. 2009; Andersson Strand and Nosch forthcoming). By recording the weight and maximum thickness of loom weights, and combining this data with the results of experimental weaving, it is possible to suggest the kind of textiles that the tools could have produced with a given type of yarn. In an archaeological context where textiles do not survive, the range of tool parameters may be used to infer the range of cloth and/or thread that could have been produced with these tools.

Combining the results from experimental testing with contextual analyses can further help to answer questions which are difficult to address by studying the tools alone. Experimental tool testing can, for instance, be used to investigate if the tools and their combinations at the site could have been used to produce yarn or fabrics corresponding to the surviving textiles. It also provides an insight into the variation in the production of yarns and fabrics at a given site, and allows for economic and social interpretations of whether the same kinds of textiles were produced in households and in workshops, thus approaching the concepts of skill and specialisation.

Conclusions

Experimental archaeology is important. Yet, the definitions of what is included in this term can be confusing. Ethnographic studies, experience archaeology and experiments are all very important methods and should of course be included in textile research. Yet, how, and which methods have been used in the interpretation should be clearly stated, as basing the results on ethnographic studies, experience archaeology and/or experimental archaeology can make a difference to the outcome. Therefore it is important to continue the discussion of the definition of experimental textile archaeology, how it can be used, its possibilities but also its limitations.

Bibliography

Andersson, E. (2003) Tools fo...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• Dedication
• The participants of NESAT X
• Editors’ Preface
• List of contributors
• A Brief History of the North European Symposium for Archaeological Textiles (NESAT)
• Chapter 1: Experimental Textile Archaeology
• Chapter 2: The Perfect Picture – A Comparison between Two Preserved Tunics and 13th-century Art
• Chapter 3: Loom-Weights, Spindles and Textiles – Textile Production in Central Europe from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age
• Chapter 4: Differences in the Elaboration of Dress in Northern Europe during the Middle Bronze Age
• Chapter 5: Avoiding Nasty Surprises: Decision-Making based on Analytical Data
• Chapter 6: Archaeological Textiles from Prague Castle, Czech Republic
• Chapter 7: Virtual Reconstruction of Archaeological Textiles
• Chapter 8: The Use of Terminology in Medieval Scandinavian Costume History: An Approach to Source-based Terminology Methodology
• Chapter 9: Haberdashery Elements made of Metal Thread: Conservation Problems
• Chapter 10: Current Examinations of Organic Remains using Variable Pressure Scanning Electron Microscopy [VP-SEM]
• Chapter 11: Textiles, Wool, Sheep, Soil and Strontium – Studying their Paths: a Pilot Project
• Chapter 12: Not so much Cinderella as the Sleeping Beauty: Neglected Evidence of Forgotten Skill
• Chapter 13: Die Rekonstruktion des Vaaler Bändchens – ein archäologisches Kammgewebe aus Dithmarschen: Gemeinschaftsarbeit der Wollgruppe des Museumsdorfes Düppel, Deutschland
• Chapter 14: The Magdalensberg Textile Tools: a Preliminary Assessment
• Chapter 15: Silk Ribbons from Post-Medieval Graves in Poland
• Chapter 16: Silks from Kwidzyn Cathedral, Poland
• Chapter 17: Norwegian Peat Bog Textiles: Tegle and Helgeland Revisited
• Chapter 18: Smooth and Cool, or Warm and Soft: Investigating the Properties of Cloth in Prehistory
• Chapter 19: Oriental Influences in the Danish Viking Age: Kaftan and Belt with Pouch
• Chapter 20: A Study of Two Medieval Silk Girdles: Eric of Pomerania’s Belt and the Dune Belt
• Chapter 21: Nettle and Bast Fibre Textiles from Stone Tool Wear Traces? The Implications of Wear Traces on Archaeological Late Mesolithic and Neolithic Micro-Denticulate Tools
• Chapter 22: Construction and Sewing Technique in Secular Medieval Garments
• Chapter 23: Tiny Weaving Tablets, Rectangular Weaving Tablets
• Chapter 24: Warriors’ Clothing in the Rigsþula
• Chapter 25: Potentials and Limitations of the Application of FTIR Microscopy to the Characterisation of Textiles excavated in Greece
• Chapter 26: Evidence of War and Worship: Textiles in Roman Iron Age Weapon Deposits
• Chapter 27: Bewahren und Erfassen – Anmerkungen zum Umgang mit mineralisierten Strukturen auf Metallen in der Denkmalpflege
• Chapter 28: Medieval Textiles from Trondheim: An Analysis of Function
• Chapter 29: Curry-Comb or Toothed Weft-Beater? The Serrated Iron Tools from the Roman Province of Pannonia
• Chapter 30: Textiles from the 3rd–12th Century AD Cremation Graves found in Lithuania
• Chapter 31: Patterned Tablet-Woven Band – In Search of the 11th Century Textile Professional
• Chapter 32: Social and Economic Aspects of Textile Consumption in Medieval Tartu, Estonia
• Chapter 33: Garments for a Queen
• Chapter 34: Our Threads to the Past: Plaited Motifs as Predecessors of Woven Binding Structures
• Chapter 35: The Neolithic Mats of the Eastern Baltic Littoral
• Chapter 36: The Impact of Dyes and Natural Pigmentation of Wool on the Preservation of Archaeological Textiles
• Chapter 37: Wear on Magdalenian Bone Tools: A New Methodology for Studying Evidence of Fiber Industries
• Chapter 38: A Bronze Age Plaited Starting Border
• Chapter 39: Textile Craftsmanship in the Norwegian Mirgation Period
• Chapter 40: Textilfunde aus Ausgrabungen in Heidelberg
• Chapter 41: Textile Remains on a Roman Bronze Vessel from Řepov (Czech Republic)
• Chapter 42: Dyes: to be or not to be. An Investigation of Early Iron Age Dyes in Danish Peat Bog Textiles
• Chapter 43: Dressing the Dead: Customs of Burial Costume in Rural Norway
• Chapter 44: The Moment of Inertia: a Parameter for the Functional Classification of Worldwide Spindle-Whorls from all Periods
• Chapter 45: Elite and Military Scandinavian Dress as Portrayed in the Lewis Chess Pieces
• Chapter 46: Headwear, Footwear and Belts in the Íslendingasögur and Íslendingatattir
• Chapter 47: The Use of Horsehair in Female Headdresses of the 12th–13th Century AD Latvia
• Chapter 48: Two Early Medieval Caps from the Dwelling Mounds Rasquert and Leens in Groningen Province, the Netherlands
• Chapter 49: Studies of the Textiles from the 2006 Excavation in Pskov
• Colour Plates