Multilinguals' Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions

Pia Resnik

• Publisher: Multilingual Matters
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN: 9781788920025
• eBook ISBN: 9781788920056
• Topic: Sprachen & Linguistik
• Subtopic: Sprachwissenschaft

This book investigates the interplay of language, emotion and gender in a multilingual context and provides rich insights into the complexities of bilingualism and the field of emotion research, as well as the intersection of both. Combining quantitative and qualitative analyses of data, the book examines multilinguals' verbalisation and perception of emotions in their first language and English, their second language (L2). The research looks at crosslinguistic, intercultural and gender-based differences, thereby highlighting the challenges faced by multilinguals in this context and the potential risks of miscommunication and misinterpretation. Results support the call for a change of paradigm towards a holistic approach to multilingualism and emotion research and highlight the similarities and differences in L2 users of English when expressing their emotions in the different languages. The book will appeal to anyone interested in research on emotions in the context of bi-/multilingualism or second language acquisition, as well as those teaching or learning multiple languages.

1 Introduction

Languages have emotion terms, and people across the world engage in talk about the emotions – though not necessarily to the same degree and with the same obsession and reflexivity as in the so-called Western world.

Bamberg, 1997: 309

Many Languages and a Few Feelings

When asked what makes us fundamentally human, one of the core aspects mentioned by many people is probably language. In addition, many would presumably subscribe to Birch’s (1995: 2) view that ‘[f]eelings are what matter most in life’. Thus, both language and emotion are crucial and so is investigating their links. Language not only expresses emotions, it also reflects them. In addition, it helps show indirectly how to understand, clarify and explain emotions (Bamberg, n.d.). These aspects become even more complex in the case of multilingual speakers. Since, according to Wierzbicka (1992a, 1995), ‘every language imposes its own classification upon human emotional experiences, English words such as anger and sadness are cultural artefacts of the English language, not culture-free analytical tools’ (Wierzbicka, 1995: 236). Consequently, the expression of emotions in a language other than one’s first is often seen as the ultimate challenge to highly proficient (second) language users (see also Fussell, 2002b).

Interacting linguistic and non-linguistic aspects of emotional communication are shaped by culture-specific display rules (Reilly & Seibert, 2009). The fact that culture-specific influence plays an important role in this respect becomes clear when looking at infants’ development: at the time they start producing their first words (at the age of 12 months approximately), ‘they are already skilled affective communicators’ (Reilly & Seibert, 2009: 535). They use both vocal prosody and facial expression to interpret and convey emotionally charged information and by the age of four, the cognitive representation of emotions – including children’s use of emotional words – can be described as sophisticated (Reilly & Seibert, 2009). Thus, socialisation clearly plays a crucial role in the way we learn to express emotions.

Communicating feelings in a language other than one’s first language (L1) is, consequently, demanding, especially if there are only partial equivalents or even no linguistic translations for the concepts and words of one’s L1 (Dewaele, 2010a; see also Farrell, 2006; Panayiotou, 2004a, 2004b, 2006; Shweder, 2008; Wierzbicka & Harkins, 2001). As has been shown in several crosslinguistic studies, there are differences in the conceptual and structural organisation of emotion lexicons as well as lexical strategies to express emotions (Pavlenko, 2002, 2005; Semin et al., 2002 cited in Pavlenko, 2008a: 91). Hence, the acquisition of the (verbal) expression of emotions is indeed challenging, yet it is central to successful cross-cultural communication.

Even though language and emotion are both described as the ‘two basic systems involved in communication’ (Reilly & Seibert, 2009: 535), investigating their interplay was ignored for a long time in linguistics – partly due to the false assumption that cognitive functions are uninfluenced by emotions. Its neglect in scientific investigations was even more prominent in research into multilingualism, which is interesting given that emotions are highly relevant to multilinguals, who are understood here as people with ‘more than one language in the same mind’ (Cook, 1991; see also Cook, 1992, 2002a, 2002b, 2003, 2012a, 2016). Only within the last 15 years has the comparably new research area of the relationship between language(s) and emotion(s) in a multilingual context gained more attention in scholarly discourse in applied linguistics (see, e.g. Dewaele, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2006, 2008a, 2008b, 2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2011a, 2011b, 2013, 2015, 2016a, 2016b; Dewaele & Nakano, 2013; Dewaele & Pavlenko, 2001–2003, 2002, 2004; Lorette & Dewaele, 2015; Pavlenko, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006a, 2006b, 2008a, 2008b, 2011; Pavlenko & Driagina, 2007). Until recently, most theoretical and/or empirical approaches to emotion research only focused on a small number of aspects and even these have been fiercely criticised: ‘[r]eading the history of emotion research is a somewhat frustrating experience. Most of the theoretical and research efforts have been directed toward a small number of controversies’ (Scherer, 2010: 3). To meet the frequently stated need for a broader approach to the subject, this book provides both an overview of the field and a profound analysis with a special focus on language, emotion and gender in multilingual and multicultural contexts – on a theoretical and empirical level. Hence, it offers a new perspective.

Aim and Scope of the Book

The book attempts to present a kaleidoscopic picture of research on emotions in the context of multilingualism, an understanding of which is crucial in today’s globalised, multilingual world in which migration frequently creates the need to express one’s feelings in an LX (referring to any language attained after the first, i.e. after the age of 3 [Dewaele, 2016a, 2017a]). It examines the interrelationships of the aforementioned aspects, focusing on LX users of English from an interdisciplinary perspective. By triangulating research methods in an innovative way (investigating the meta-level of self-reflexivity, but also analysing the level of performance), the book provides answers to two general research questions:

(1) To what extent do cross-cultural, crosslinguistic and individual differences, including demographic (gender, age and education) and language-related variables (language learner history, self-perceived proficiency and frequency of use), have an impact on the perceived degree of emotionality of the L1 and second language (L2), the self-rated frequency of verbalising emotions in the L1 and L2, code-switching (CS) in various situations and the perception of L2 users’ selves?

(2) To what extent do cross-cultural, crosslinguistic and gender differences have an impact on the frequency and way of expressing emotions when writing a story in the L2?

Thus, the book offers a fresh approach to the phenomenon of emotions in multilingual contexts by including the dimensions of gender and crosslinguistic and intercultural comparisons on the one hand and by combining a meta-level of self-reflexivity with the level of performance on the other. It calls for a change towards a holistic approach to multilingualism and emotion research and aims at contributing to a better understanding of the mechanisms and influences underlying LX users’ verbalisation of emotions and the obstacles faced by them in this respect (e.g. structural, conceptual and lexical differences). It seeks to investigate the possibility of intercultural, crosslinguistic, language-related, gender-based and individual differences in order to avoid, or at least minimise, the risks of miscommunication. The book clearly stresses that ‘le langage a un côté individuel et un côté social, et l’on ne peut concevoir l’un sans l’autre’ [Language has both individual and social aspects, and one cannot conceive of one without the other] (de Saussure, 1916: 24), a fact that needs to be taken into account when attempting to adequately investigate emotions in multilingual contexts. In this book, I also aim to show that research in this context needs to be a cross-disciplinary endeavour drawing on a range of methodologies to deepen our understanding of the topic.

Methodology and rationale

Besides providing the reader with an exhaustive, up-to-date review of previous work in this field, the book answers the general research questions drawing on data from two studies. Due to the complexity and interdisciplinary nature of the field, taking a triangulation approach is considered essential as it allows an investigation of the topic from various angles, thereby giving rich insights into the phenomena at play. The focus of both studies was multilinguals’ verbalisation and perception of emotions in their L1 versus their L2. The first study (also referred to as Study A) was based on adaptations of the Bilingualism and Emotions Web Questionnaire (Dewaele & Pavlenko, 2001–2003): a comparatively high number of multilinguals (349) participated in the online survey and shared their views. To be able to draw reliable conclusions regarding the above-mentioned research questions, the answers from a selected group of 167 L2 users of English are taken into account in this book (i.e. those multilinguals who mentioned using English as their third language [L3] or fourth language [L4] were discarded). Even though it is acknowledged that a proper understanding of emotional processes also requires, for instance, indirect means of measuring these on the level of facial expressions or physiological reactions (see, e.g. Berridge & Winkielman, 2003; Cacioppo et al., 2000; Caldwell-Harris et al., 2010), it is still important to stress that, especially in the field of emotion research, an inclusion of the participants’ own thoughts on their subjective feelings is just as important.

The second study (Study B) was conducted in London, UK, and involved 24 multilinguals with either L1 German or Chinese and English as their L2. Data were collected by means of a pencil-and-paper questionnaire on the participants’ demographic profile, language history and present language use. In-depth interviews were conducted and the participants were also asked to write a story in English. The rationale of this study was twofold: as ‘questionnaires are by nature incomplete’ (Wilson & Dewaele, 2010: 117) for various reasons (for a detailed discussion, see Chapter 5), the interviews allowed more nuanced explanations, complementing the (mostly quantitative) analyses of the web survey data. The interviews stressed once more the relevance of including an emic perspective (Dewaele, 2010a; Pike, 1954) for a valid interpretation of the data. Of course, using verbal reports is not only advantageous but also has its shortcomings (Ogarkova et al., 2009). Still, Scherer (2005: 712) is right when stating that ‘there is no access other than to ask the individual to report on the nature of the experience’ to measure ‘the subjective experience of an emotional episode’ (Scherer, 2005: 699; see also Feldman-Barrett, 2006). Thus, in Study B too, the topic of multilingualism and emotion was approached on a meta-level of self-reflexivity. The second aim of this study was to analyse the level of performance as well. The participants were asked to write a story (Mayer, 1969) in their L2 (English) in ScriptLog, a program developed by Karlsson and Strömqvist (2002). The stories were analysed with regard to the frequency and type of emotion and emotion-laden expressions. The analysis was based on categories developed by Pavlenko (2008b: 148). The aim was to identify possible effects of the L1 as well as the participants’ cultural background, gender and proficiency on verbalising emotions in English as a second language (ESL).

How the Book is Arranged

The book begins with a general introduction to the field, where basic tenets of emotions in multilingual contexts are provided and questions are addressed. Focusing on the complex phenomenon of emotions, the second chapter provides the reader with an overview of possible categorisations, neuroscientific aspects and underlying difficulties linked to the phenomenon of emotions. After clarification of the basic aspects relevant to a proper understanding of emotions, the relation between language and emotions and the relevance of this under-researched field in linguistics are explained in Chapter 3. This is where the question of universality or cultural variance of emotions is tackled as well. When discussing the two basic components of human communication and cross-cultural differences in expressing emotions, it is also important to explore the role of gender. Stereotypes clearly exist in this respect and, consequently, the concept of ‘doing gender’ (West & Zimmerman, 1987, 2002) is highly relevant too. This subsection also presents a rationalisation of the dynamic approach taken in this book and summarises previous research, giving reasons underlying the predominant stereotypes.

In Chapter 4, the topic is on the even more complex level of bi-/multilingualism: starting off with a general discussion of the difficulty of defining the term and different approaches to it, the chapter then introduces the question of the comparability of native speakers and L2 users. Cook’s (1991, 2016) multi-competence model is discussed in depth, offering an understanding of the implications of the model for research on emotions in the context of second language acquisition (SLA) and the approach taken in this book, which is explained in the next section. The focus then shifts to the representation of emotion and emotion-laden words in the bi-/multilingual mental lexicon, which is a prerequisite for an understanding of the aspects explained in the following subsection, namely the perceived degree of emotionality of the languages known, language preference for verbalising emotions and differences in verbalising specific emotions, such as love or anger, in a language other than one’s L1. The question as to whether multilinguals sometimes feel like a different person when using the different languages is addressed, as is CS, a phenomenon central to the multilingual self. The section titled ‘Emotions in Multilingual Contexts’ in Chapter 4 mirrors the structure of the presentation of findings in Chapter 6 to make the book more accessible to the reader.

Chapter 5 starts with a presentation of the research questions and hypotheses, which are proposed based on previous work discussed in Chapters 2–4, followed by a rationale for investigating the effects of the proposed independent variables. The research design is then explained in detail. As a first step, the importance of triangulating research methods in SLA research on emotions is discussed, followed by an explanation of the methodology used in the two studies (Study A and Study B) and an in-depth description of the participants of both studies as well as the procedures.

Because direct reporting from multilinguals themselves reveals the most reliable data (Feldman-Barrett, 2006), their own views on the aspects explained in the previous chapters are presented in Chapter 6. As the participants in both studies all shared English as their L2, but differed in their L1, they were divided into two groups depending on the typological proximity/distance of the L1 and English. Thus, the effect of the L1 and the participants’ cultural background on using the L2 (and vice versa) could be investigated in addition to individual variation. As stated above, the presentation and discussion of the results mirrors the structure of the section titled ‘Emotions in Multilingual Contexts’ in Chapter 4 to make it easier for the reader to compare previous work on the topics to the present studies.

In Chapter 7, the question as to whether differences can be ‘felt’ and seen on the level of actual linguistic output is answered by analysing a story that the 24 multilinguals from Study B wrote in their L2 English. The stories were written in ScriptLog, a program developed by Karlsson and Strömqvist (2002), which allows a dynamic analysis of the whole text production process. Besides examining general aspects, such as lexical diversity and the overall time it took the participants to write the story, an analysis of emotion and emotion-laden words in the stories produced is included in this chapter. Possible influences of several variables on the use of emotion and emotion-laden expressions, such as the participants’ gender and L1, are also investigated. The book concludes with a summary of the key issues addressed, discussing obstacles in designing studies in this context and giving ideas for future research.

Societal Implications

Gaining a deeper understanding of multilinguals’ verbalisation and perception of emotions is highly relevant these days as, of the approximately 2 billion users of English today, LX users outnumber its L1 users (Graddol, 2006; Mauranen, 2012). LX users of English frequently need to express their feelings in this language; understanding to what extent this differs from doing so in their L1 is beneficial in many ways. Not only does it help prevent possible instances of cross-cultural miscommunication, but the contents of this book might also be useful for classroom contexts, in which multilingualism rather than monolingualism is the norm these days. In these contexts, a deeper understanding of how people feel when using different languages gives valuable insights into possible obstacles faced by students. Furthermore, LX learners’ emotions are influential in (un-)successful LX attainment (see, e.g. Dewaele & Dewaele, 2017; Dewaele et al., 2016, 2017; Mercer, 2009) and so are teachers’ (see, e.g. Mercer & Gkonou, 2017). Being a competent user of a foreign language also involves pragmatic competence (Dewaele, 2010a), even more so in English as a lingua franca (ELF) contexts, where ‘speakers cannot rely on much shared linguistic or cultural knowledge with their interlocutors’ (Mauranen, 2010: 13). Thus, this book is also relevant to contexts where English is the ‘communicative medium of choice’ (Seidlhofer, 2011: 7) to bridge linguistic gaps. As many people live with more than one language in today’s globalised world and often communicate their feelings in LX rather than L1 contexts, the results from the two studies presented in this book might also be useful to a better understanding of migration contexts, for instance, and may provide insights into migrants’ lives (see also Panicacci & Dewaele, 2017).

Who This Book is Written For

As a wide range of themes and applications are addressed and a range of methodologies applied, the book is written for those involved or interested in (research on) emotions in multilingual contexts or SLA as well as anyone teaching or learning multiple languages. As I attempt to give a clear and comprehensive overview of a range of issues addressed in research in the field and include an extensive discussion of methodological issues, the book is meant to give rich insights into the complexities of the phenomena at play and should, consequently, also appeal to undergraduate and graduate students of applied lingu...

Table of contents

• Cover-Page
• Half-Title
• series
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Figures and Tables
• Abbreviations
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Emotion
• 3 Language and Emotion: The Two Basic Components of Human Communication
• 4 Bi-/Multilingualism and Emotion
• 5 Research Questions, Hypotheses, Independent Variables and Research Design
• 6 Differences in Feeling?: Multilinguals’ Own Views on Verbalising Emotions in the L1 and L2
• 7 Feeling the Difference?: Verbalising Emotions in ESL
• 8 Conclusions and Implications
• Appendix
• References
• Index