A Guide to the Zohar
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A Guide to the Zohar

Arthur Green

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eBook - ePub

A Guide to the Zohar

Arthur Green

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About This Book

The Zohar is the great medieval compendium of Jewish esoteric and mystical teaching, and the basis of the kabbalistic faith. It is, however, a notoriously difficult text, full of hidden codes, concealed meanings, obscure symbols, and ecstatic expression. This illuminating study, based upon the last several decades of modern Zohar scholarship, unravels the historical and intellectual origins of this rich text and provides an excellent introduction to its themes, complex symbolism, narrative structure, and language. A Guide to the Zohar is thus an invaluable companion to the Zohar itself, as well as a useful resource for scholars and students interested in mystical literature, particularly that of the west, from the Middle Ages to the present.

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Year
2003
ISBN
9780804782913
Part I
INTRODUCTION
1
Prologue
I thank God for not having created me in the period before the Zohar was known to the world, because the Zohar kept me a Jew.
Rabbi Pinas of Korzec (eighteenth century)1
The Zohar is the great medieval Jewish compendium of mysticism, myth, and esoteric teaching. It is the central text of the Kabbalah, the grand tradition of Jewish mystical lore that developed in Western Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It may be considered the highest expression of Jewish literary imagination in the Middle Ages. The Zohar is also a lush garden of sacred eros, filled to overflowing with luxurious plantings of love between master and disciples; among the mystical companions themselves; between the souls of Israel and Shekhinah, God’s lovely bride; but most of all between the male and female elements that together make up the Godhead. Revered and canonized by generations of faithful devotees, the Zohar’s secret inner universe serves as the basis of kabbalistic faith, both within the boundaries of Judaism and beyond it, to our own day, which has seen a significant revival of interest in Kabbalah and its teachings.
The Zohar is a work of sacred fantasy. To say this about it is by no means to impugn the truth of its insights or to diminish the religious profundity of its teachings. The Middle Ages were filled with fantasy. Angels and demons, heavenly principalities, chambers of heaven and rungs within the soul, secret treasures of the spirit that could be seen only by the elect, esoteric domains without end—all of these were found in the writings of Jewish, Christian, and Islamic authors throughout medieval times. All of these descriptions partake of fantasy. It may be said that all theological elaborations, insofar as they are allowed to become pictorial, are fantasy. They depict realities that have not been seen except by the inner eye of those who describe them, or by their sacred sources.
In the case of Judaism, prohibitions derived from the second of the Ten Commandments forbade the depiction of such sacred realms in any medium other than words. Perhaps because of this, the literary imagination became extraordinarily rich. All those creative energies that in other contexts might have sought to reify sacred myth in painting, sculpture, manuscript illumination, or stained glass had instead focused on the word, especially on the timeless Jewish project of commentary and exegesis. In this sense the Zohar may be seen as the greatest work of medieval Jewish iconography, but one that exists only in the words of the written page, thence to be distilled in the imagination of its devoted students.
Written in a lofty combination of Aramaic and Hebrew, the Zohar was first revealed to the world around the year 1300. The Castilian Kabbalists who distributed it, orally and in small written fragments, presented it as an ancient text they had recently rediscovered. They claimed it had been composed in the circle of those described within its pages, Rabbi Shim’on ben Yoai and his disciples, who lived in the Land of Israel a thousand years earlier, during the second century of the Common Era. The obscurity of the Zohar’s origins combined with its unique language and its rich poetic imagery to lend to the work an aura of unfathomable mystery. While a few of the more critical spirits in each century doubted the Zohar and questioned its authority, the great majority of its readers, and later of Jewry as a whole, believed in the Zohar and venerated it, considering it a holy revelation and a sacred scripture that was to be ranked alongside the Bible and the Talmud as a divinely inspired source of religious truth. Only in modern times, and largely for apologetic reasons, was the Zohar deleted from the canon of what was considered “mainstream” Judaism.
The Zohar is the key text of what is often called Jewish mysticism. Before locating the Zohar within the context of the Jewish mystical tradition, we need to turn briefly to the question of mysticism and the multiple ways we use that term when referring to the rich legacy of Judaic materials, stretching from the Bible to the Middle Ages and beyond, to our own day. What do we mean by the term Jewish mysticism? The word mysticism itself is of Greek and Christian origins and is therefore not native to the traditions of which we speak, none of which saw themselves as “mystical.” The equivalent Hebrew terms—sod (“secret”), okhmah nistarah (“hidden wisdom”), and kabbalah (“tradition”)—refer to the esoteric nature of these teachings. Mysticism is generally taken to describe primarily a certain category of religious experiences, and secondarily all the theology, textual sources, religious movements, and so forth that derive from these experiences. Applying the term mysticism to the Zohar or to Jewish sources thus requires some adjustment in its usage and certain reservations about the meanings implied.
Mystics share with other religious people an intense awareness of divine presence and a constant readiness to respond to that presence in both prayer and action. For the mystic, that presence is revealed through powerful and transformative inner experiences. These seem to come from a source that lies beyond the ordinary human mind; they are usually understood as a divine gift, a source of special favor or grace, an act of revelation. The intensity of these experiences lends a sense that the reality they portray represents a deeper source of ultimate truth than do the more usual and widely shared human experiences of sense perception or rational thought.
The experience that lies at the heart of mysticism has been the object of much study and discussion by scholars of religion. Various characteristic types of mystical experience have been outlined and shown to exist across the borders that historically have defined religious traditions and separated them from one another. Mystical experience, whatever its ultimate source, represents a transformation of ordinary human consciousness. Mystics speak of reaching toward another plane of reality. Some of their experiences reflect a slowing down of mental activity to a more restful and contemplative pace; others result from a speeding up of the mind in a rush of ecstatic frenzy. Some mystics describe a fullness of divine presence that overwhelms and floods the mind, while others speak of utter emptiness, a mind that becomes so devoid of content that it can transcend its own existence. There are mystics who see their experiences conveyed by beings outside themselves: God, angels, or heavenly voices speak to them. Others view the experience more internally: a deeper level of the soul is activated, revealing truths or insights that the person was unable to perceive when in an ordinary state of mind. Most of these experiences, as described by those who undergo them, contain some element of striving toward oneness, a breaking down of illusory barriers to reveal the great secret of the unity of all being. The nature of this oneness and its relationship to the phenomenal world that appears before us are described in a great variety of ways, depending on both the personality of the individual mystic and the theology of the tradition out of which he or she speaks.
All of these mystical phenomena as well as others are well represented within the Zohar. The history of Jewish mysticism reveals a variety of experiential types as well as widely differing styles of recording such experiences and integrating them within the normative canon of Jewish religious life. We should bear in mind that in Jewish mysticism, or even within the specific traditions known as Kabbalah, we do not have before us a single linear development of a particular type of mysticism, but rather a variety of mysticisms against the shared background of Judaism, including its sacred texts, its praxis, its interpretive traditions, and the panorama of Jewish history and life experience in the periods under discussion. Even the Zohar itself reflects a panoply of mystical experiences, as is discussed at length in Chapter Six.
Jewish mystical authors are famously shy about speaking directly of their own experiences. This has to do with a longstanding commitment to esotericism with regard to mystical teachings. The second-century Mishnah had already stated that certain matters could be taught only to one student at a time (or “in a whisper,” according to another version),2 while others could be taught only to a single student who was both “wise and understanding of his own accord,” seemingly referring to one who had some personal experience of such matters. Written accounts of mystical experience, while they do exist, are relatively rare among the Kabbalists. It is much more their way to garb the personal within the metaphysical, or at the very least to modestly ascribe the experience to one of the ancients rather than to themselves. This is very much the case with the Zohar, as will become clear to the careful reader.
A special problem deserving of mention before we get under way, one that lies at the heart of the specific form of Jewish mysticism called Kabbalah, is that of mysticism and language. The mystic receives insights from a source that is “deeper” or “higher” than the ordinary human mind. But how can those insights be conveyed? Language, whether spoken or written, is our ordinary vehicle of communication, itself a product of the mind and one that shares the limitations of its source. In order to communicate a translinguistic or “ineffable” level of insight, the mystic needs to struggle against the barriers of language, perhaps by stretching the ordinary discursive vehicle to new poetic heights, perhaps by discovering within language a previously untapped symbolic stratum, perhaps by speaking in a holier tongue, by recourse to some code, or else by bearing witness to the utter breakdown of language through such phenomena as glossolalia, sacred stammer, or the glorification of silence.
Judaism offers a distinctive approach to this problem through its ancient belief in the creative and mysterious power of language, stemming back to the myth of creation through the word, the basis of the opening chapter of Genesis. Because of this belief, Jewish mystical sources are filled with reflections on the secrets of language and are often characterized by intense and highly detailed attempts to penetrate inner and hidden levels of speech. Language in general may indeed be a human creation, says the Jewish tradition, but the source of Hebrew, the Holy Tongue, is God. Hebrew is the language of divine speech, that by which God created the world. In some form, though perhaps one hidden to us, that language must have preexisted creation. The Hebrew language as we now have it, seemingly a vehicle of ordinary human speech (though it was seldom spoken among medieval Jews, who used it mainly for the study of sacred writings), bears within it an array of secrets that reveal it to be the premundane language of God. Such a primally charged language, one that offers a key to existence itself, might also be a proper vehicle for the conveying of mystical truth or insights. The nature of God’s primordial speech, the question of its relationship to Hebrew as we know it, and the interplay between the language of creation and the languages of revelation and interpretation are all the stuff of kabbalistic discourse, treated frequently within the pages of the Zohar.
Notes
1. Imrey Pinas ha-Shalem (Jerusalem: Mishor, 1988), p. 164, #56.
2. Mishnah Hagigah 2:1; Midrash Tehillim 104:4.
2
The Kabbalistic Tradition: A Brief History Until the Zohar
Jewish mysticism of the Middle Ages is a rereading of earlier Jewish tradition, including both the Bible and the corpus of rabbinic literature. It has to be understood in the context of the great project of medieval Jewry as a whole, the interpretation of a received, authoritative, and essentially complete body of normative Jewish teaching. This body of teaching, canonized in the Geonic age (from eighth to tenth centuries), nominally commanded the loyalty of all Jewry, with the exception of a Karaite minority.1 But the deeper attachment of Jews to this tradition had to be rewon constantly, especially in the face of both Christian and Muslim polemics against Judaism, ever the religious culture of a threatened minority living in the shadow of one or the other of its giant off-spring. Increasingly, various new intellectual currents that came into fashion among the Jews also occasioned the need for defense or reinterpretation of the tradition. These included Mut’azilite philosophy,2 Neoplatonism, and Aristotelianism. The classic form for such reinterpretation of authoritative texts was the commentary, whether on one or more books of the Bible or on a part of the Talmudic legacy. Kabbalah, a new sort of mystical-esoteric exegesis that first appeared in the twelfth century, may be seen as another medieval rereading of the received Jewish canon.
To understand the ways in which Kabbalah, and particularly the Zohar, finds its home within the earlier tradition, we need to distinguish five elements that are present in the legacy that medieval Jews received from the Judaism of the Talmudic age. Although these five are not at all equal either in the amount of text devoted to them or in the degree of formal authority with which they are accredited, each plays an important role in the new configuration of Judaism that Kabbalah represents.
The first of the five elements is aggadah, the narrative tradition, contained in the Talmud and the various works of Midrash. Midrash is a hermeneutical term, renderable both as “inquiry” and “homiletics,” indicating a way of delving into Scripture that tends toward fanciful and extended rereadings. Much of aggadah is legendary in content, expanding biblical history and recreating the biblical landscape in the setting of the rabbinic world. But aggadah also includes tales of the rabbis themselves and teachings of wisdom in many forms: maxims, parables, folk traditions, and so forth.
The Kabbalists made great use of the midrashic-aggadic tradition, drawing on both its methods of interpretation and its contents. The hermeneutical assumptions of Midrash—the legitimacy of juxtaposing verses from anywhere within Scripture without concern for dating or context, the rearrangement of words or even occasional substitution of letters, the use of numerology and abbreviation as ways to derive meaning, the endless glorification of biblical heroes and the tarring of villains, and others—were all carried over from Midrash into Kabbalah. Indeed many of these assumptions were used by other sorts of medieval preachers as well. But the content of the aggadic worldview, with its mythical picture of God as Creator and Divine Ruler who sees everywhere; who acts in history, responds to prayer and human virtue, even suspending the laws of nature to rescue His beloved; who mourns with Israel the destruction of their shared Temple and suffers with them the pain of exile—all this too was faithfully carried over into the kabbalistic imagination. In fact, the Kabbalists were partial to the most highly anthropomorphic and mythical versions of rabbinic tradition, such as those contained in the eighth-century midrashic collection Pirqei de-Rabbi Eliezer. Here they stood in sharp contrast to the other emerging intellectual trend of the Middle Ages, Jewish philosophy, which exercised a degree of critical skepticism with regard to the more f...

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