801 Things You Should Know

From Greek Philosophy to Today's Technology, Theories, Events, Discoveries, Trends, and Movements That Matter

David Olsen

• Publisher: Adams Media
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9781440565717
• eBook ISBN: 9781440565724

Discover how the world's biggest ideas, inventions, and actions changed the course of history! What would life be like if the Age of Reason never challenged others to think differently, if the Industrial Revolution never happened, or if the New York Stock Exchange never came into existence? 801 Things You Should Know gives you the lowdown on thoughts and events that transformed past civilizations into the cultures that we know today. Each entry explains a game-changing concept or moment in time, detailing how it helped shape societies around the globe. You'll uncover fascinating details you'd never heard before, and be surprised to learn how these major influences have directly impacted the way you live.From the sixth century B.C. to the present day, you'll discover the captivating people, acts, and ideas that have inspired change--and revolutionized the world.

Chapter 1

Things You Should Know About Philosophy

“Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy, and political greatness and wisdom meet in one, and those commoner natures who pursue either to the exclusion of the other are compelled to stand aside, cities will never have rest from their evils—no, nor the human race, as I believe—and then only will our State have a possibility of life and behold the light of day.”

—Plato

In this section you’ll learn the 100 things you need to know about philosophy, from all of Plato’s best ideas to modern-day philosophies such as subjective idealism and infinitism. You will learn how, in the age of reason in England and France, there was a reshuffling of thought and ideas central to humans and their place in society. How Confucius built an ethical system and moral order of virtues credited with instilling values of learning and family devotion that are common in China today. How humanism stresses human fulfillment through science and the application of scientifically derived knowledge. How the mind-body problem explores the question of whether a soul exists in humans or if we are a collection of chemicals that interact to provide experience of the external world. How transcendentalism teaches that reality can be discovered through intuitive thought processes, and makes a priority of spiritual insights over empirical data. You will learn all this and much, much more.

AESTHETICS

This is the philosophy of beauty and taste relating to nature or the creation of art. It’s an appreciation of beauty derived through the senses or a study of sensory-related values or judgments. It can also mean a critical review of art forms or culture. It comes from Greek, meaning “I perceive, feel, or sense.”

AGE OF REASON

In eighteenth-century England and France, philosophy, art, religion, and society’s values were re-evaluated through the prism of reason. It was a time of reshuffling thoughts and ideas central to humans and our place in society. Many thinkers of this age promoted the importance of the individual in society, challenged the right of monarchs to rule, and said people should pursue their own course in life. What transpired in this period of history set the stage for democratic upheavals such as the American Revolution.

AGNOSTICISM

A doubt or skepticism about the existence of God; beliefs or judgments about whether it is possible even to know about the existence or nonexistence of a God or deity. The term also relates to the likelihood of our knowing metaphysical or religious truths. Agnosticism includes the belief that humankind has not acquired adequate proof for a rational decision as to the existence of a deity.

ANIMISM

The belief that animals, plants, mountains, rivers, and other natural phenomena possess a spirit. Animists argue for the existence of both the physical and spiritual worlds in one world. Ancient tribal people attributed myths and rituals to certain animals or acts of nature, giving them specific powers. Anthropologists often refer to the religious practices of ancient people as animist.

ANTHROPOMORPHISM

The attribution of human emotions and features to animals, spirits, gods, or natural phenomena such as thunder and lightning, the sun, etc. The ancient Greeks thought of their gods in human form. Anthropomorphism can include physical appearance, temperament, and personality. Mythic gods who showed emotion, indifference, etc., are anthropomorphic gods.

AQUINAS, THOMAS (1225–1274)

An Italian philosopher and Roman Catholic theologian who wrote the Summa Theologiae as a comprehensive overview of Christian belief. His work was the high point of Scholasticism, a scholarly approach to critical thinking using Aristotelian logic. In his writings, Aquinas encouraged the application of reason to theological topics.

ARISTOTLE (384 B.C.E.–322 B.C.E.)

A Greek philosopher who as a young man was taught by Plato. Next to his teacher, Aristotle is considered one of the world’s greatest philosophers. He studied and taught about almost every aspect of science, knowledge, rhetoric, logic, ethics, biology, and zoology. His approach to studying objects was later used by Francis Bacon to develop the scientific method. Aristotle was, for a time, the tutor of Alexander the Great.

ASCETICISM

Self-denial; forgoing pleasure, daily convenience, and financial security to satisfy religious pursuits or spiritual achievements. Asceticism means denying the body through self-discipline to strengthen the spirit. Ascetics lead a simple lifestyle, restricting sensual pleasures and the enjoyment of life.

BUDDHISM

The name is applied to religions practiced widely in India and Southeast Asia based on teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as Buddha, who lived between 600 B.C.E. and 400 B.C.E. The term means “the awakened one.” The goal of the Buddha’s teachings is nirvana, the highest level of happiness. Through his insights, people may transcend this world by accepting suffering as a means to overcome ignorance.

CALVIN, JOHN (1509–1564)

A French theologian and one of the Protestant reformers, he taught that people are saved by God’s grace and not by their individual good works. Calvin considered human beings totally depraved in their fallen state and unable to act ethically or morally. He taught that God has predestined some people for eternal damnation and others for a heavenly abode.

CALVINISM

The belief of John Calvin, the Protestant reformer, that people are saved by God’s grace and not by their individual good works. Calvin taught that humankind has limited free will and is completely dependent on God’s sovereign grace. Calvin is most widely known for his doctrine of predestination, which states that God has chosen some people for eternal damnation and others for salvation. But it is God’s choice as to whom he decides to save.

CLOCKWORK UNIVERSE

Following the introduction of Isaac Newton’s laws of motion in the seventeenth century, philosophers conceived of the universe as a clock wound up by God. The moving parts, or gears of the watch, were controlled by God’s laws of physics. This idea gained popularity in the eighteenth-century Enlightenment because through gravitation and other natural laws, the movements of the solar system could be explained.

CONCEPTUALISM

The medieval theory that there are no universal concepts outside our perception, unlike Plato who thought universals had an objective existence. According to this theory, people conceptualize meaning and experience and impose a structure upon it.

CONFUCIANISM

Confucius (551 B.C.E–479 B.C.E.) taught about love of humanity, harmony between thought and conduct, and reverence for parents, including ancestor worship. He built an ethical system around these concepts, stressing moral order and virtues. His philosophical and ethical system had great influence on Chinese culture and is credited with instilling values of learning and family devotion that are common in China today. Confucianism predates the introduction of Buddhism and Daoism, which eventually became the prevailing philosophies of thought in China. But over time, many of the ideas of Buddhism and Daoism were combined with Confucianism and neo-Confucianism was born.

CREATIONISM

The belief that all things were created as they now exist by God under his powers, which are mysterious and unknowable to man. Creationists don’t believe that life forms gradually developed and evolved to bring about the earth as we know it today. Creationists believe the account of the earth’s creation found in the book of Genesis in the Bible, in which God created the earth in seven days.

DAOISM

To live in harmony with one’s surroundings. This philosophical system, which developed in China, stresses the virtues of a simple life with little or no interference with the course of natural events. Taoists try to live in harmony with the Tao (Dao), a term that means the path or principle that is the driving force behind existence.

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Top-down logic. This means starting from a general statement to reach a conclusion that is logical and sound. Inductive reasoning is the reverse of deductive reasoning, in which conclusions are reached from the examination of specific examples.

DEISM

A belief in God based on reason and rational thought. Deists look at the order and beauty of the world and universe and conclude that God is the designer and first cause, though he is distant and indifferent to his creation. Deists reject revelation as revealing the existence of God. The term originated in the 1620s from the French word deisme, which derives from the Latin deus, “god.”

DEONTOLOGY

In ethics, the beliefs a person holds concerning duty or moral obligation. It can also mean the determination of the morality of a choice based on the rules present in the situation.

DESCARTES, RENÉ (1596–1650)

A philosopher and mathematician who lived...

Table of contents

• Title Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Introduction
• 1: Things You Should Know About Philosophy
• 2: Things You Should Know About History
• 3: Things You Should Know About Business & Economics
• 4: Things You Should Know About Art & Literature
• 5: Things You Should Know About People & Culture
• 6: Things You Should Know About Politics
• 7: Things You Should Know About Science & Technology
• 8: Things You Should Know About the Social Sciences
• Copyright