Deadly Feasts

Tracking The Secrets Of A Terrifyin

Richard Rhodes

• Publisher: Simon & Schuster UK
• Year: 2012
• Print ISBN: 9780684819860
• eBook ISBN: 9781471104572
• Topic: Philosophy
• Subtopic: Philosophy History & Theory

In this brilliant and gripping medical detective story. Richard Rhodes follows virus hunters on three continents as they track the emergence of a deadly new brain disease that first kills cannibals in New Guinea, then cattle and young people in Britain and France -- and that has already been traced to food animals in the United States. In a new Afterword for the paperback, Rhodes reports the latest U.S. and worldwide developments of a burgeoning global threat.

Part One

Among the Cannibals

First Connection …

ONE

I Eat You

South Fore, New Guinea Eastern Highlands, 1950

DARK NIGHT in the mountains and no drums beating. No flute music like birdsong from the forest above the village—the men controlled the flutes and this was women’s business, secret and delicious, sweet revenge. In pity and mourning but also in eagerness the dead woman’s female relatives carried her cold, naked body down to her sweet-potato garden bordered with flowers. They would not abandon her to rot in the ground. Sixty or more women with their babies and small children gathered around, gathered wood, lit cooking fires that caught the light in their eyes and shone on their greased dark skins. The dead woman’s daughter and the wife of her adopted son took up knives of split bamboo, their silicate skin sharp as glass. They began to cut the body for the feast.

New Guinea was the last wild place on earth. Its fierce reputation repelled explorers. Micronesians canoe-wrecked anywhere in its vicinity swam the other way. Captain Bligh, put off the Bounty after his crew’s notorious mutiny, gave the violent island wide berth. It was the largest island in the world after Greenland, fifteen hundred miles long, four hundred miles wide, shaped like a dinosaur with a central cordillera of mountains for a spine, rising out of the Western Pacific just below the Equator north of Australia, eastward of Sumatra and Borneo. Mangrove swamps fouled its tropical coasts; its mountainous interior rose barricaded behind impenetrable, leech-infested rain forests. Its people were Melanesian—small, muscular, black, woolly-haired Stone Age fishermen, hunters and farmers—divided into a thousand warring groups so isolated from each other by conflict and difficult terrain that they spoke more than seven hundred separate languages, one island’s cacophony accounting for half the languages on earth.

By the time Dutch, German and English ships began to anchor at the mouths of the island’s great tidal rivers, in the mid-nineteenth century, it was common knowledge among Europeans that the savages of New Guinea were cannibals. But there are cannibals and cannibals: warriors who eat their enemies, hating them, but also relatives who eat their kin in a mortuary feast of love. Fore^* women ate their kin. “Their bellies are their cemeteries,” one observer remarks. “I eat you” was a Fore greeting.

Down in the garden in the flaring firelight, the dead woman’s daughters ringed her wrists and ankles, sawed through the tough cartilage, disjointed the bones and passed the wrinkled dark hands and splayed feet to her brother’s wife and the wife of her sister’s son. Slitting the skin of the arms and legs, the daughters stripped out muscle, distributing it in dripping chunks to kin and friends among the eager crowd of women. They opened the woman’s chest and slack belly and the smell of death wafted among the sweet-potato vines. Out came the heavy purple liver, the small green sac of the gallbladder cut carefully away from the underside and its bitterness discarded. Out came the dark red heart gory with clotting blood. Out came the looping coils of intestines, dully shining. Even the feces would be eaten, mixed with edible ferns and cooked in banana leaves.

They knew the work from slaughtering pigs. They parted out the dead woman by the same kin rights they followed parting out pig, but men got the best parts of pig. Men claimed the small game they shot and trapped in the forest as well, the possums and lizards and the rare flightless cassowary whose legs supplied fine flutes of bone they could wear in their noses. Women grew gardens of beans, sweet potatoes and sugarcane, nourishing but bland, and supplemented their mostly vegetarian diet with roasted hand-sized spiders and fat grubs. Men lived separately from women and children, following their wives into their gardens to copulate, sharing the big men’s lodge with the older boys. Men believed contact with women weakened them. They resented the fecundity of women. Men seldom ate the dead and then only the red meat, surreptitiously.

The crowd of women and children got busy at collecting and chopping as the body of the dead woman diminished. (Her name survives as a discreet abbreviation in a medical thesis: Tom. Tomasa?) One of the daughters doing the butchering cut around the neck, severed the larynx and esophagus, sawed through the cartilage connecting the vertebrae, disjointed the spine and lifted the head aside. The other daughter skinned back the scalp skillfully, took up a stone ax, cracked the skull and scooped the soft pink mass of brain into a bamboo cooking tube. Their cousins, the North Fore, cooked bodies whole with vegetables in steam pits lined with hot stones, but the South Fore preferred mincing the flesh of the dead and steaming it with salt, ginger and leafy vegetables in bamboo tubes laid onto cooking fires. They ate every part of the body, even the bones, which they charred at the open fires to soften them before crumbling them into the tubes. The dead woman’s brother’s wife received the vulva as her special portion. If the dead had been a man, his penis, a delicacy, would have gone to his wife.

From the coast, the mountainous interior of New Guinea looked like a single range of peaks, but Australian gold miners following traces of color—gold dust in the streams—up into the mountains in the late 1920s discovered a vast unknown interior between multiple parallel ranges. High, temperate mountain valleys sustained a population of more than two hundred thousand people in villages and hamlets cleared from primeval pine forests, a true Shangri-La. When the first white men crossed into the high valleys, their arrival stunned the isolated highlanders, who did not even know the ocean existed beyond the mountains that closed them in. Old motion pictures show the highlanders laughing, crying, shuddering with excitement at their first encounter with the white apparitions; they imagined them to be their kinsmen returning from the dead. They knew nothing of guns and showed no fear of them, but ran away in terror the first time an Australian took out his false teeth. They were true democrats and pledged fealty to no chiefs, but they distinguished big men from ordinary men and from men who were nothing. They wore beaded and feathered headdresses, nose bones, necklaces of pig tusks and aprons of woven bark or grass and smeared their bodies with fire char and rancid pig fat against the insects and the cold. Men carried stone axes or longbows. Some of them affected phallocarps instead of aprons—braggadocio penis sheaths made of great curving hornbill beaks or ornate sea shells traded up from the unknown coast. Women wore grass skirts and went bare-breasted. They cut off finger joints in mourning, wore mourning necklaces of the dried hands of lost babies, carried a husband’s rotting head in a woven bag, a bilum, on their backs for months after his loss, suffering the stink.

Eating the dead was not a primordial Fore custom. It had started within the lifetime of the oldest grandmothers among them, at the turn of the century or not long before. They learned it from their neighbors to the north. It spread to a North Fore village and word got around. “This is sweet,” an anthropologist reports the Fore women saying when they first tasted human flesh. “What is the matter with us, are we mad? Here is good food and we have neglected to eat it. In future we shall always eat the dead, men, women, and children. Why should we throw away good meat? It is not right!” The meat was sweet and so was the revenge the women took thereby against the men who claimed the best parts of pig—pigs the women had sometimes suckled at their own breasts. They did not eat lepers or those who died of diarrhea, but the flesh of women killed by sorcery they considered clean. Dying Fore asked to be eaten and assigned their body parts to their favorites in advance.

An anthropologist named Walter Arens published a book in 1979 claiming that cannibalism has always been a myth everywhere in the world, a tale told at third hand not to be believed. To the contrary, cannibalism was a fact everywhere in the primitive world, the Old World and the New, and still sometimes emerges. Fossilized human bones with cut-marks bear witness in European caves across seven hundred thousand years. A dissident Chinese journalist, Zheng Yi, discovered officially sanctioned cannibalism of the livers of class enemies in the province of Guangxi during the decade of Cultural Revolution that began in the People’s Republic of China in 1966.

The Fore admitted their cannibalism freely to the first Europeans who questioned them, though they gave it up when missionaries and Australian police patrols pressed them to do so in the late 1950s—Sputnik was beeping overhead—and deny it today. Whatever its connection with ritual, cannibalism in New Guinea was also a significant source of protein, two American anthropologists have calculated: “A local New Guinea group of one hundred people (forty-six of whom are adults) which obtains and eats some five to ten adult victims per year would get as much meat from eating people as it does from eating pork.”

The women at their mortuary feast butchered and cooked down in the garden, but they ate in private, carrying the steaming bamboo tubes back to their separate women’s houses, sharing the feast with their children. A young American doctor who came a few years later to live and work among them thought their eating habits almost as surreptitious as the toilet habits of Westerners. It wasn’t that they were ashamed of eating the dead—they were just as surreptitious with pig. Eating meat was orgiastic. The men said that the women were insatiable, wild, like the forest. When the men pulled the wild grass at the edge of the forest they said it was women’s pubic hair. Marriage barely tamed them.

Lately, more and more Fore women had been dying of sorcery, which only men practiced, a fatal bewitchment they called kuru.^* Kuru meant shivering—with cold or with fear—and by 1950 it was claiming women in every Fore village. The Fore men earned a fearsome reputation across the highlands as sorcerers. Once the shivers of kuru began, the bewitchment progressed inexorably to death. Women bewitched with kuru staggered to walk, walked with a stick and then could no longer walk at all. Before losing the ability to swallow they got fat and the flesh of those who died early of pneumonia was rich meat.

* Pronounced FOR-ae.

* Pronounced KOO-roo.

TWO

Kuru

South Fore, New Guinea Eastern Highlands, 1957

WHEN DR. D. CARLETON GAJDUSEK^* stopped off in New Guinea in March 1957 on his way home from research work in Australia, he expected to spend a few months exploring what he called “child growth and development in primitive cultures.” Arriving in Port Moresby, the thirty-four-year-old American pediatrician and virologist paid his respects first of all to the new director of public health for the Australian trust territory, a physician named Roy Skaggs. Skaggs was delighted to see him. One of Skaggs’s public-health officers, Dr. Vincent Zigas, who was based in the frontier settlement of Kainantu in the New Guinea Eastern Highlands and whose district included the North and South Fore, had recently appealed for help studying the strange, deadly disease the Fore called kuru. Zigas didn’t believe kuru was caused by sorcery. He thought it might be a new form of encephalitis—an infection of the brain. Skaggs had just returned from visiting Zigas at the hospital Zigas was building beside the Kainantu airstrip and had examined two middle-aged Fore women sick with kuru. The discovery of a new human disease is as exciting to medical researchers as the discovery of a new element is to physicists. Skaggs had no budget for exploring new diseases, but Gajdusek had first-class credentials as a research scientist and he was paying his own way. The public-health director encouraged the American to fly up to Kainantu and take a look.

Gajdusek arrived at the frontier outpost on March 13. Zigas, a trim, volatile Estonian with wavy hair who resembled the comic actor Danny Kaye, recalled in a posthumously published memoir encountering his curious colleague for the first time outside his house:

My preoccupation was interrupted by a peculiar visitor. At first glance he looked like a hippie, though shorn of beard and long hair, who had rebelled and run off to the Stone Age world. He wore much-worn shorts, an unbuttoned brownish-plaid shirt revealing a dirty T-shirt, and tattered sneakers. He was tall and lean, and one of those people whose age was difficult to guess, looking boyish with a soot-black crew-cut unevenly trimmed, as if done by himself. He was just plain shabby. He was a well-built man with a remarkably shaped head, curiously piercing eyes, and ears that stood out from his head… . Everything he possessed spoke of his being peripatetic. Even standing still, he seemed to be on the move, with top tilted forward, in the breathless posture of someone who never had time enough to get where he had to be… . I guessed him to be from America, a nation of strange mixtures of blood… . I was machine-gunned by his numerous questions.

“At Kainantu there were two old women who had kuru,” Gajdusek recorded of that first encounter with Zigas’s patients. When he saw the Fore women they could no longer walk. They shivered uncontrollably, not from cold but from damage to their brains. Their arms and legs pulsed as well with slow, continuous, involuntary tremors—“athetoid movements,” Gajdusek called them. Their speech was blurred. “They were rational, but articulation of speech was very poor. Silly smiles, with grimacing, were prominent.” Zigas would remember the phrase Gajdusek coined for the exaggerated emotionalism of kuru: “pathological laughter.” When the Australian press heard of kuru, it would inflate that characteristic to a name for the disease itself and call it “laughing death.” Close up, it was anything but funny.

By evening, says Gajdusek, Zigas “had exhausted me in rounds examining his patients, including the two women with kuru. Later that night, he told me more about this fascinating disease among the endocannibal Stone Age Fore people in the ‘uncontrolled region’ to the south. His enthusiasm for the challenge presented by this new disease, and his recognition that its high epidemic incidence demanded intensive research to determine its [origins], caused me to alter my plans and to arrange an expedition with him to the [South Fore] to see kuru.” They left together by jeep the next morning.

Carleton Gajdusek was a Czech-American prodigy, born in 1923 in Yonkers, New York, where his immigrant father owned a butcher shop. As a boy, he had thrilled to the stories of the great biologists and physicians in Paul de Kruif’s book Microbe Hunters who had revolutionized medicine in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Young Carleton had inscribed the names of the men de Kruif celebrated onto the stairs leading up to the childhood laboratory he assembled in the attic of his family’s large house: Leeuwenhoek, who first saw microbes in a drop of rainwater through a homemade lens; Koch, who first demonstrated that germs are alive and cause disease; Pasteur, who invented pasteurization and devised the first laboratory-produced vaccines; Walter Reed, who conquered yellow fever. These and a half dozen others from de Kruif’s book had inspired the boy to dream of going into science. His aunt was a scientist—an entomologist, a specialist in insects—and he took inspiration from her as well. “She had me doing experiments just after I was a toddler,” he recalls—studying the effects of pesticides on insect larvae.

The kuru region of Papua New Guinea.

By the time Carleton Gajdusek was a young teen he had begun original research at the institute where his Tante Irene worked. By nineteen he had taken a biophysics degree summa cum laude at the University of Rochester under the distinguished physicist Victor Weisskopf and was entering Harvard Medical School. He chose to specialize in pediatrics, but basic research drew him as well and he went off to Caltech after medical school for a year to study physical chemistry under Linus Pauling, the Nobel laureate chemist. From Caltech, Gajdusek returned to Harvard for postdoctoral work in microbiology under John Enders, whose success in growing viruses in tissue culture—outside the body on beds of nutrient in glass dishes—earned him a Nobel Prize and provided a technical basis for the development of polio vaccine. Nobel laureates pick their assistants from among the most promising young scientists they encounter, passing on their unwritten knowledge of scientific craft; that a succession of Nobel laureates chose to mentor Carleton Gajdusek calibrates the high promise of his gifts.

In those days the young American research physician was rail-thin, intense, enormously ambitious but scattered across a thousand projects; Enders said of him that he “was very bright but you never knew when he would leave off work for a week to study Hegel or a month to go off to work with Hopi Indians.” Gajdusek was and still is a compulsive talker who spills ideas nonstop for hours—good talk, often brilliant talk and consummate storytelling, but more than some listeners can bear. A neurologist friend of his speculates that his compulsive flow of speech is a kind of epilepsy, and as a young man he learned that relaxing to a level the rest of humanity considers normal precipitated crippling migraine headaches that laid him low for days. Women found his intensity attractive—and his Slavic features, sensual mouth and mischievous, intelligent eyes—but he submerged himself compulsively in work. Macfarlane Burnet, ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• The history of the world
• TO THE READER
• PART ONE: Among the Cannibals
• PART TWO: The Strangest Thing in All Biology
• PART THREE: God in the Guise of a Virus
• AFTERWORD: WE MAY HAVE TO FACE AN EPIDEMIC
• GLOSSARY
• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
• INDEX