SDG11 - Sustainable Cities and Communities

Towards Inclusive, Safe, and Resilient Settlements

Maha Al-Zu'bi, Vesela Radovic

• Publisher: Emerald Publishing Limited
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781787569232
• Topic: Politics & International Relations
• Subtopic: Environment & Energy Policy
• Index: Politics & International Relations

Sustainable Development Goal 11, one of 17 Global Goals that make up the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, recognizes the need to make cities and human settlements 'inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.' This book uses empirical analysis to address challenges associated with the implementation of SDG11. It considers policies, strategies and success stories from various regions, countries and cities, including actions to improve natural resources management, reduce GHG emissions, and develop urban adaptation and resilience strategies and disaster risk management to help decision-makers, planners and practitioners in achieving the 2030 agenda.
Concise Guides to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals comprises 17 short books, each examining one of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. The series provides an integrated assessment of the SDGs from economic, legal, social, environmental and cultural perspectives.

1

CITIES AND KEY INTERACTIONS

Cities are not isolated. They interact extensively with surrounding regions and, increasingly, with the rest of the world. Since the emergence of new discourses and agendas, such as sustainable development, climate change, disaster risk reduction (DRR), urban development, etc., scholars stress the need to create integrated and harmonised policies and promote a coordinated decision-making approach at local, national, regional and international levels. Furthermore, they argue that achieving overlapping objectives and goals can occur when decision makers better recognise and understand how their actions, interests and mandates link and interact with other components within the broader system of governance.

1. SUSTAINABLE AGENDA (2015–2030)

In September 2000, the historic Millennium Declaration, ‘Millennium Development Goals’ (MDGs), was announced in the presence of 189 countries’ leaders, in which they committed to achieve a set of eight global goals by September 2015 (United Nations (UN), 2018). To maintain momentum, the UN has invested enormous efforts since 2012, during the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development Goals (UNCSDG) in Rio de Janeiro, on developing a new set of sustainable development goals (SDGs). As a result, in September 2015, world leaders adopted a post-2015 sustainable development agenda, which includes 17 SDGs and 169 targets to set the scene for the new SDGs, aiming, inter alia, at ending poverty, fighting inequality and injustice and tackling climate change by 2030. This agenda, Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, is seen as a plan of action for people, the planet and prosperity, agreed by the General Assembly summit.

The 17 SDGs seek to build on the MDGs and complete what they did not achieve (UN, 2015b). The scope of the SDGs is more comprehensive in one important respect, but much less in another. As the SDGs grew out of the UNCSDG in 2012, they were heavily integrated into the concept of sustainable natural resources. In fact, the SDGs can be characterised as MDGs+. While there are new references to inequalities, seven out of the 17 goals relate to energy and the environment. All of the goals are of paramount importance in urban areas all over the globe. Achieving the SDGs by 2030 will, of course, not primarily be the responsibility of the UN system; it will require the engagement, participation and allocation of resources of many stakeholders, particularly the governments of member states. The UN development system needs to find its role within these efforts (Browne & Weiss, 2016).

During the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit in September 2015, the relationship between cities, sustainable development, socio-economic factors, human settlement and natural resources was finally recognised. It was also clear that, without transforming our approach to how we design, build and manage our urban space, sustainable development cannot be achieved. The world leaders’ recognition of this materialised in the inclusion of SDG11: ‘Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’, to strengthen resilience and the capacity to adapt to climate-related hazards and impact on natural resources (UN, 2015b). This goal is a remarkable success for urbanists and local stakeholders worldwide and puts urbanisation and territorial development at the heart of sustainable development. SDG11 and its 10 targets – as illustrated in Box 1 – require action from sub-national urban governments. SDG11 targets address a wide range of unique urban challenges, such as the upgrading of slums and the provision of affordable housing, public transportation systems, planning and governance, cultural heritage, disaster management, air quality, waste management and public and green spaces.

Box 1. SDG11 and its 10 Targets (UN, 2015b).

• 11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums.
• 11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women and children, persons with disabilities and older persons.
• 11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanisation and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries.
• 11.4 Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage.
• 11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations.
• 11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management.
• 11.7 By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities.
• 11.8 Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning.
• 11.9 By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters and develop and implement, in line with the SFDRR, holistic disaster risk management at all levels.
• 11.10 Support least developed countries, including through financial and technical assistance, in building sustainable and resilient buildings utilising local materials.

These targets are not easy to achieve. The implementation process requires a comprehensive planning and design process, resources and capacity and the effective cooperation, coordination and active engagement of all stakeholders (e.g. civil society organisations, citizens, scientists, academics, the private sector, etc.) at various levels – globally, regionally, nationally and locally – to effectively respond to existing challenges. Furthermore, they require clear governance frameworks; informed policy frameworks; comprehensive, collaborative and solid plans; innovative solutions; technology; financial resources; building capacities; etc., in order to achieve SDG11 in its targets.

2. PARIS AGREEMENT

The interaction between cities, urbanisation and climate change is complex. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2014) in its Fifth Assessment Report, there was overwhelming consensus that climate change impacts are accelerating and fuelled by human-caused emissions: ‘It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century’. In addition, the International Energy Agency (IEA) (2008) estimates that urban areas are responsible for more than 67% of energy-related global (GHG emissions (e.g. transportation, building sectors, etc.) and this is expected to rise to 74% by 2030. Furthermore, the IEA (2013) Outlook Report (p. 1) projects that world energy consumption will grow by 56% between 2010 and 2040. At the same time, climate change is predicted to lead to a range of effects and impacts (e.g. cross-sectoral and cross-border) that will vary from region to region (Campbell-Lendrum & Corvalan, 2007; IPCC, 2014), and cities will be the most vulnerable to the potential impacts of climate change (Hunt & Watkiss, 2011). According to the World Economic Forum (WEF) (2011), climate change impacts will restrict the capacity of existing systems (natural and built environments) that rely on natural resource supply management systems to provide reliable and affordable water, energy and food. These complex dynamics pose substantial risks for the sustainable development agenda and the resource security ambitions of governments, businesses and communities (Hoff, 2011; Weitz, Huber-Lee, Davis, & Hoff, 2014). Fig. 1 illustrates the complex dynamics between cities and climate change.

The linkages between trends in GHG emissions and urbanisation are complex and encompass many factors including the level of socio-economic development, rate of economic growth, rate of population growth, availability of energy resources, technology and innovation and urban form and infrastructure (Staden, 2014, p. 14). On the other hand, particularly in the developing world, most cities face major challenges such as poor living conditions, urban poverty, lack of financial resources, centralised policy and governance and constraints on productivity due to lack of basic infrastructure, capacity, knowledge and skills. Over time, these challenges make cities more vulnerable to natural disasters and climate change impacts and less resilient (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2013).

Recently, there has been a growing consensus among world leaders that cities are vital places for global mitigation and adaptation efforts (Bulkeley, 2013; Bulkeley, Castán Broto, Hodson, & Marvin, 2011). Scholars argue that without forward action at a global level and without significant changes at an urban level (e.g. urban governance and policy), the trend in GHG emissions and associated climate change impacts will continue as urbanisation trends grow (Bradbury & Tompkins, 2013; IEA, 2010).

Fig. 1. Complex Dynamics between Cities and Climate Change. Source: Adapted from Al-Zu’bi (2017).

In 2015, an agreement was reached among 196 world leaders (developed and developing countries) at the United Nations Climate Change Summit in Paris with core elements that included commitments to limits on emissions to relatively safe levels; to reductions in global warming by 2 °C with the hope of further decreasing this to 1.5 °C; to adaptation, financial commitments and transparency; and to the promotion of carbon trading (UN, 2015a). Recently, the debate on climate change has shifted, and mitigation approaches have been complemented by a new paradigm, that of adaptation to the risks introduced by climate change (Alber & Kern, 2008; UN, 2015a). The need to focus on adaptation has been significantly increased through the failure among high-income nations to act to reduce GHG emissions (Huq, Kovats, Reid, & Satterthwaite, 2007).

The post-2015 sustainable development agenda places emphasis on the important role of cities in responding to climate change impact. This was clear in SDG11: ‘Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’ and SDG13: ‘Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts’ to strengthen resilience and the capacity to adapt to climate-related hazards and their impact on natural resources (UN, 2015b). Both SDG goals put considerable weight on the need for adaptation and mitigation measures to respond to climate change impact and to achieve sustainable development.

To ensure a reduction in GHG emissions and less damage to ecosystems and the built environment, decision makers and planners must enact new policies, legislation, planning processes, etc., that drive economic investment into low-carbon technologies, reduce global GHG emissions and enhance the resilience of ecosystems, communities and critical infrastructure (United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), 2011).

3. NEW URBAN DEVELOPMENT AGENDA (HABITAT-III)

Cities currently accommodate more than 50% of the world’s population; by 2030 this is expected to reach 60% (UN, 2015c). Growing trends in urbanisation and their associated challenges to people, infrastructure and ecosystems were recognised as significant at the United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) in 2016, in which the commitment of global leaders to sustainable urbanisation was translated into the NUDA. This focusses on what needs to be done to ensure that cities and human settlements are the vehicles of development and are themselves designed, planned, developed and managed in sustainable ways.

The NUDA gave the opportunity to a wide spectrum of stakeholders to open discussions and dialogues on important urban challenges and questions, such as how to sustainably design, plan and manage cities, towns and villages; these dialogues shape the design and implementation of the new global sustainable development agenda and climate change goals (Amann & Jurasszovich, 2017). The new urban agenda elaborates on SDG11 of the SDGs: ‘Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable’. For example, the urban agenda has additional substantive urban issues not covered by the SDGs; in particular, it provides a spatial or location framework for the delivery of SDGs within urban areas, with a focus on additional means of implementation.

The linkages between the SDGs and the new urban agenda are significant and share a common relevance to cities and human settlements. However, the new urban agenda does not address directly most SDGs; rather, it facilitates their delivery within the urban context. For instance, it focusses on local-level implementation and calls for sustainable urban planning as an important instrument for supporting the sustainable use and management of land and natural resources. In addition, it calls for financing from both public (e.g. economic gains from urbanisation, including land and property value and infrastructure projects, etc.) and private (e.g. real estate, housing, etc.) sources. It also encourages a diverse range of multilateral financial institutions, regional development banks, private-sector leaders, micro-financing banks, etc. to invest in affordable and incremental housing in all its forms (Amann & Jurasszovich, 2017). Furthermore, the SGDs acknowledge the importance of implementation at a local level and the important role of local governments. At the same time, the urban agenda also places emphasis on the need to develop the capacity of local authorities and other local actors to understand the synergies in implementing both the NUDA and the SDGs at the local urban level.

As the means to implement SDG11 are very limited, the new urban agenda expands on these by addressing essential spatial (e.g. spatial planning, etc.) and governance frameworks (policies, legislations and finance mechanisms within urban areas).

While the SDG framework forms the global core of Agenda 2030, urban stakeholders will be looking to the new urban agenda to articulate an integrated vision of sustainable urban development and to set out some of the means of implementation for the SDGs in cities and regions. It is clear that, without transforming the current approach on how we design, build and manage our urban space, sustainable development cannot be achieved.

4. SENDAI FRAMEWORK FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION 2015–2030

Natural and man-made disasters continue to adversely affect all areas of the world. In 2016, 342 disasters triggered by natural hazards were registered; this was below the 2006–2015 annual average (376.4), but the number of people reported affected by natural disasters (564.4 million) was the highest since 2006, amounting to 1.5 times its annual average (224 million). The estimates of the economic cost of natural disasters was US$ 154 billion in 2016; this was the fifth highest since 2006, 12% above the 2006–2015 annual average (Guha-Sapir, Hoyois, Wallemacq, & Below, 2016).

It is widely recognised that there is a dynamic and potentially mutually reinforcing relationship between disasters and development: disasters impact on development and development impacts on disasters (Keating et al., 2014). This fact is obvious at a national level, but even more visible on a local level. In many countries, the situation of local self-management has deteriorated over the last few years. The state of the least developed municipalities is quite alarming. Many plans and projects for different improvement programmes have been devised, yet positive results are slow in coming (Radovic´ & Komatina-Petrovic´, 2012). Therefore, it is essential to consider disaster risk as an integral part of the development process at global, national and local levels. Disasters jeopardise achieving the goals laid out in the MDGs and severely affect many countries with the enormous losses they cause. The e...