After Migration And Religious Affiliation: Religions, Chinese Identities And Transnational Networks

Religions, Chinese Identities and Transnational Networks

Chee-Beng Tan

• Publisher: WSPC
• Year: 2014
• eBook ISBN: 9789814590013
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Science General
• Index: Biological Sciences

This is a timely book that fills the gap in the study of Chinese overseas and their religions in the global context. Rich in ethnographic materials, this is the first comprehensive book that shows the transnational religious networks among the Chinese of different nationalities and between the Chinese overseas and the regions in China. The book highlights diverse religious traditions including Chinese popular religion, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, and discusses inter-cultural influences on religions, their localization, their significance to cultural belonging, and the transnational nature of religious affiliations and networking.

Contents:

• Chinese Religious Traditions and Living in the Diaspora:
  • The Mazu Worship on the Island of Java (Myra Sidharta)
  • State and "Chinese Religions" in Indonesia: Confucianism, Tridharma and Buddhism During the Suharto Rule and After (Leo Suryadinata)
  • Under the Buddha's Shadow: Buddhism and the Chinese in Myanmar (Duan Ying)
  • Teaching about Qi: Knowledge Transmission among Chinese Ethnic Practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine in the United States (Emily S Wu)
• Localization and Chinese Religious Traditions:
  • Syncretism as Religious Identity: Chinese Religious Culture in the Philippines (Aristotle C Dy and Teresita Ang See)
  • Datuk Kong Worship and Chinese Religion in Malaysia: Reflections of Syncretism, Pragmatism and Inclusiveness (Lee Yok Fee and Chin Yee Mun)
• Christianity, Islam and the Chinese Overseas:
  • Religious Affiliation and Propensity to Christianity of Chinese in Canada (Eva Xiaoling Li and Peter S Li)
  • Between Catholicism and Evangelism: The Peruvian Chinese Community (Isabelle Lausent-Herrera)
  • Overseas Chinese Protestant Churches in Japan: Changes as Witnessed from Their Stance Toward Christian Mission Activities (Kainei Mori)
  • Junus Jahja and Chinese-Indonesian Muslims in Indonesia (Chiou Syuan-yuan)
• Religious Affiliations and Transnational Networks:
  • Japanese Buddhism and Chinese Sub-ethnic Culture: Instances of a Chinese Buddhist Organization from Shantou to Vietnam (Satohiro Serizawa)
  • Transnational Ritual Practices among the Chinese Migrants in Spain (Irene Masdeu Torruella)
  • Ancestral God, Locality God, and Chinese Transnational Pilgrimage (Tan Chee-Beng)

Readership: Scholars, postgraduate students and general public who are interested in the study of Chinese overseas, particularly with reference to religious affiliation.
Key Features:

• First comprehensive book that describes Chinese overseas from the perspective of religious affiliation
• Shows the connection between China and the Chinese overseas through religious networks

PART 1

CHINESE RELIGIOUS
TRADITIONS AND LIVING
IN THE DIASPORA

THE MAZU WORSHIP ON
THE ISLAND OF JAVA

Myra Sidharta

In 2009, the Mazu beliefs and customs were inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. According to the official UNESCO website Mazu is “the most influential goddess of the sea in China” (www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/00227, accessed on 17 March 2012). Known as the protector of seafarers and fishermen, she is widely worshipped in China, Taiwan and by Chinese overseas in various parts of Southeast Asia. Even in Australia and the west coast of the United States, there are temples devoted to her.

Since the Song dynasty (960–1279), Mazu had been worshipped for protection by Chinese seafarers and traders before departing for distant lands. The Treasure Fleet under Admiral Zheng He is said to have also followed this tradition before departing on each of the seven expeditions that he led (Levanthes, 1996: 89–92). It is not known whether any of these seven expeditions brought the worship of Mazu to the archipelago, since no records are available about the beginnings of her worship there. However, it is quite interesting to note that temples devoted to her are located at many places visited by the expeditions or the junks of the earlier Mongol period (1279–1368).

Despite its international fame, little has been written about the presence of the Mazu worship in Indonesia. In this chapter I discuss the cult in Java, where there are at least a dozen temples devoted to Mazu as the main deity. There are many others in which she is worshipped next to other deities. Although her temples are usually found in coastal areas, on Java they are also found inland along major rivers, indicating the long history of the settlement of seafarers. The Kim Hin Kiong temple in Gresik, which is located on the northern coast of East Java, was until 2011 the mother temple for the Mazu cult in Java. Each year on the birthday of the goddess, this temple was visited by effigies (kimsin in local Hokkien) of Mazu or other deities from other Mazu temples in Java.

The Goddess Mazu

The goddess Mazu was originally a woman, generally described as Lin Moniang, who was born in Meizhou Island in Fujian in 960 A.D. After her death in 987, stories of fishermen seeing her image and saving them contributed to her deification. There are also many stories about her miraculous deeds in life, including about her while asleep saving her father and brothers or merchants at sea, depending on the versions of the stories. There are now a number of significant works and debates about Mazu (for example, Chang, 2003; Tan, 2013; Watson, 2004; Xu, 2007), and there is consensus that she was a female shaman.

After her death, the families of many fishermen and sailors began to pray to Lin Moniang in honor of her acts of courage in trying to save those at sea. Her worship spread quickly. J. S. Stavorinus (1969 [1798]: 288), who traveled to various Indonesian islands, mentioned in his travelogue that he was allowed to enter a junk. He reported that in the middle of the steerage there was a kind of shrine in which an idol was placed. It is likely that this was a statue of Mazu. Starting from the province of Fujian, the worship of Mazu spread to the coastal areas of China. With the expansion of the maritime trade and emigration following political developments in the homeland, Mazu worship extended to more overseas countries, such as Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries. Newly arrived immigrants often erected temples to her first, to give thanks for arriving safely. Today, there are around 1,500 Mazu temples in 26 countries of the world [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazu (goddess)].

Since her inception as a goddess, Lin Moniang had been conferred many honorary titles, including Tianfei (Celestial Concubine), Tianshang Shengmu (Saintly Mother of Heaven), and Tianhou (Empress of Heaven), and among the Hokkiens, she is affectionately addressed as Mazoo (Great Grandma) or Mazu in Mandarin (Tan, 2013: 419). In Indonesia, she is usually known in Hokkien as Makco or Makcopo, meaning great-grandmother or great ancestral mother. On the altar, she usually has her name displayed as Tianshang Shengmu or pronounced in the Hokkien as Thian Sang Seng Bo (De Groot, 1880: 207–215).

Mazu is usually depicted together with two guardian generals known as “Thousand Miles Eye” (Qianli Yan) and “With-the-Wind Ear” (Shunfeng Er). Their iconography, apart from resembling fierce demons can vary but “Thousand Miles Eye” is often red in color with two horns, while “With-the-Wind Ear” is green with one horn. They are said to have been two demons whom Mazu conquered and subdued, turning them into her own loyal guardians and friends. Mazu herself is usually depicted as wearing a red robe in paintings or murals, but in sculpture is always clothed in the elaborate robes of an empress holding a ceremonial tablet and wearing a flat-topped imperial cap with hanging beads at the front and back.

Mazu temples in the Archipelago

Mazu temples can be found at several coastal cities on the islands of Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Java. According to Widodo (2008), on Sumatra, the well-known Mazu temple is in Palembang, opposite the Musi River. Widodo (2008) also mentions several Mazu temples in the city of Medan and further down south along the East coast of Sumatra. On its west coast one temple could be found in the city of Padang, which was destroyed by the earthquake in 2009. A small beautiful temple can be found in Muntok on Bangka Island. In Kalimantan, several temples are said to exist on the coastal villages.

Sulawesi has three Mazu temples, of which the one in Makasar is the oldest. Its history goes back to the early 18th century. It has been repaired several times and a pavilion and a prayer hall had been added in the 19th century. It was burned down recently and rebuilt in a completely modern style. During a recent visit to Makasar, I visited this renovated temple on 23 February 2012. This five-story high building is equipped with an elevator to reach the fourth floor where the Mazu altar is located. From this floor a staircase leads to a platform on the roof where a 3-meter tall Mazu statue of white marble stands, facing the sea. In Manado the Tianhou Temple was also burned down and was rebuilt in 1895. The Tianhou Temple in Gorontalo is a small and well preserved building dating probably from the last few decades of the 19th century¹ (see Map 1.1).

On the island of Java we can observe two kinds of temples, those which have Mazu as a main goddess and those where she has a place of honor, but where the main god is a different one. Starting from Jakarta we can follow the trail of the temples where Mazu is the main goddess. In Jakarta the temple has been a private temple of the Lim family and is now open for public. Situated on the Bandengan Selatan Street it is named Kelenteng Dewi Samudra (Temple of the Goddess of the Ocean). Although open for public, the main hall where Mazu’s altar is located is not open to non-worshippers and picture taking is not allowed inside the temple.²

Map 1.1. Coastal towns of the Indonesian Archipelago where major Mazu temples are located.

The second temple is the one in Demak, situated opposite the Grand Mosque. The temple is small and there were no visitors when we visited. The Po An Bio was erected on the 29th year of Kang Xi (1690) and it was relocated to its present site in 1968 (see Fig. 1.1). Rembang the next city has a large temple on the seaside, the Tjoe Hwie Kiong (see Fig. 1.2). Every 10 years a big celebration is held. Neighboring temples are invited to participate in the celebrations with a parade of Mazu and her visitors through the streets of Rembang. The last celebration was held in 2011. At the left side of the temple is a place reserved for some local heroes, who in the 18th centuries after the Chinese massacre in Batavia had joined the Javanese troops to fight the VOC (Dutch East India Company).

Fig. 1.1. The Mazu Altar at Po An Temple in Demak (Photograph by Tan Chee-Beng, August 2007).

Fig. 1.2. Tjoe Hwie Kiong Temple in Rembang (Photograph by Tan Chee-Beng, August 2007).

From Rembang we can follow the Mazu temples along the north coast of Java and see them in Lasem, Tuban, Gresik, Surabaya and on the island of Madura in Sumenep. All these cities were important ports even before the Treasure fleet had arrived in 1406. China during the Song and Yuan Dynasty had relations with the kingdoms of Kediri and Majapahit. Therefore it is not surprising to see Mazu temples along the Brantas River, one of the largest rivers in East Java. The Mazu temple in Surabaya, the Hok An Kiong is on Slompretan Street. It is a medium-sized temple and has an orphanage for girls.

From Surabaya we can follow the trail southwards to Pasuruan, Jombang, Mojokerto, Kediri and Tulungagung. Madiun is not on the Brantas River, but the beautiful temple erected there was started as a private home temple (see Map 1.2). In 1887, a piece of land of 6,000 square meters was donated by the Dutch Government and that was the start of the Hwie Ing Kiong temple.

Map 1.2. Towns in Java where Mazu temples are located.

The celebration of Mazu’s birthday

I first learned about the celebration of Mazu’s birthday at the Kim Hin Kiong temple in Gresik in the year of 2006 in Pasuruan, when I was there for a visit. A man who was preparing for the journey told me he was taking the kimsin (effigy) of Mazu for a birthday party at the Kim Hin Kiong and he advised me to go there, too, because it was a big celebration, which I should not miss. Because I was traveling by car, I could follow him all the way to Gresik. The kimsin was carried by a man who held it and kept on his lap until the car had arrived at the Kim Hin Kiong temple. At the temple the visitors were greeted by the barongsais (lion dance). It was very impressive and more so because the distance from the car to the temple was only a short one. In front of the temple the dignitaries of the temple were waiting and greeted the guest Mazu with a kowtow. Then the kimsin was handed over to the host, who brought it inside the temple to be placed on the altar (see Fig. 1.3).

Unfortunately this was the last one to arrive that day and I could not see more. However it was enough to trigger my curiosity, especially because, I too, was welcomed with great honor. The host, Mr Kurniawan, who was one of the temple elders, offered me accommodation at his hotel, which was newly built and had comfortable rooms. He persuaded me to stay until the guest parties departed the next day in the afternoon. I did stay for the evening entertainment and watched some of the wayang potehi (budaixi

hand puppets) performance and enjoyed the singing and comedy performance by the community. There was also an auction of the jewelry donated by some sponsors. These jewelry, usually necklaces, have been hung around Mazu’s effigy’s neck and are supposed to bring luck to the owner.

Mazu’s birthday is on the 23rd of the 3rd month of the lunar calendar, and her birthday is celebrated worldwide, including in Indonesia. This celebration is usually held at the Gresik Kim Hin Kiong temple, which claims to be the oldest Mazu temple of that region. Starting on the day before the birthday, the temple gets ready to receive the statues (“divine guests”) from the other temples. Usually 10 to 15 “divine guests” are expected to come, depending on which temples have responded to the invitation. Decision to join depends on the puapui (divination with two divining blocks), which also decides the representatives to be sent to the celebration. Thus, the “divine guest” may not be Mazu herself but another deity from the same temple. Al...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Halftitle Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Acknowledgments
• List of Contributors
• Introduction
• Part 1 Chinese Religious Traditions and Living in the Diaspora
• Part 2 Localization and Chinese Religious Traditions
• Part 3 Christianity, Islam and the Chinese Overseas
• Part 4 Religious Affiliations and Transnational Networks
• Index