History Of The Great Wall Of China, A

Ai Jing, Gangliu Wang, Aimee Yiran Wang

• Publisher: WSPC
• Year: 2015
• eBook ISBN: 9781938368325
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Science General
• Index: Biological Sciences

The Great Wall of China is the world's largest military defense structure. It towers and meanders along mountain ranges, constructed more than 2,000 years ago. It was made more brilliant by the numerous wars, power struggles, successive dynasties, political and economic historical events influencing imperial China for over 2,000 years.

The everlasting value of the Great Wall comes from the architecture, with its components of the wall, gates, towns, garrisons, and signal towers, along with their artistic elements. It also derives fame from the countless classical works of poetry, folk literature, theater and storytelling written about it by rulers, soldiers, literati and famous poets.

This book is among the most systematic and comprehensive works on the Great Wall. It conveys to the reader content in language that is clear and straightforward. It traces the history of the Great Wall's origin, including the initial Period of construction for multiple defensive walls, the era of overall transformation, the Period of the partial expansion and the Period of overall maintenance. The readers will obtain a clear and comprehensive view of the overall picture of the Great Wall and its history from this book.

Published by SCPG Publishing Corporation and distributed by World Scientific for all markets except China

Contents:

• The Great Wall and Many Theories of Its Origins:
  • Past and Present of Great Wall Scholarship
  • Defining the Great Wall
  • Misleading Theories About the Origin of the Great Wall
  • Origin of the Great Wall
• Early Stage of Great Wall Mass Construction (Part One) — The Warring States Period:
  • The Great Wall by the State of Qi in the Warring States Period
  • The Great Wall by the State of Chu in the Warring States Period
  • The Great Wall by the State of Wei in the Warring States Period
• The Early Stage of Great Wall Mass Construction (Part Two) — The Warring States Period:
  • The Great Wall by the State of Zhao and Zhongshan in the Warring States Period
  • The Great Wall by the State of Yan in the Warring States Period
  • The Great Wall by King Zhao of Qin in the Warring States Period
• Time of Overall Transformation of the Great Wall — Qin and Han:
  • Qin Great Wall in Dalate Banner in Wuhai City by the Yellow River
  • The Extended Use and Construction of The Great Wall by King Zhao of Qin
  • Qin Dynasty Great Wall in the Northern Foothills of Yinshan Mountain
  • The Use and Repair of Zhao State Great Wall and Yan State Great Wall
  • Han Dynasty Incorporating Ancient Great Walls in Northern China
  • The Northern Great Wall Built in Han Dynasty
  • Juyan Fortress in Han Dynasty
  • The Great Wall in the Shule River Basin in Han Dynasty
• Period of the Great Wall's Partial Expansion (Part One) — Northern Wei to Sui and Tang Dynasties:
  • Northern Wei Great Wall
  • Great Wall by Eastern Wei and Northern Qi
  • Sui Dynasty Great Wall
  • Tang Dynasty Great Wall
• Period of the Great Wall's Partial Expansion (Part Two) — Liao and Jin Dynasties:
  • Liao Dynasty Great Wall at Zhendong Haikou
  • Liao Dynasty Border Trench in North of Gobi Desert
  • Liao Dynasty Border Levee along the Banks of Second Songhua River
  • Jin Dynasty Great Wall
  • Border Trench South of Gobi Desert by Jin Dynasty
• The Period of Overrall Maintenance for the Great Wall — Ming and Qing Dynasties:
  • Why Does Ming Dynasty Call the Great Wall "Border Wall"
  • Ming Dynasty East of Liaoning Border Wall
  • Ming Dynasty Border Walls in Towns of Ji, Xuan Fu, Datong and Taiyuan
  • Yulin Garrison Border Wall in Ming Dynasty
  • Ningxia Garrison Border Wall in Ming Dynasty
  • Guyuan Garrison Border Wall in Ming Dynasty
  • Gansu Garrison Border Wall in Ming Dynasty
  • Qing Dynasty's The Liu Tiao Bian vs Ming Dynasty Border Walls
  • Location and Directions of the Liu Tiao Bian
  • The Characteristics and Influences of the Liu Tiao Bian
• Epilogue:
  • Length of the Great Wall from Each Dynasty
  • The Great Wall and the Border Trenches
  • The Great Wall and Natural Mountain Barriers
  • The Great Wall and "Dang Lu Sai (Road Blockage)"
  • The Great Wall and Signal Towers
• Appendix: Sections of the Great Wall as National Key Cultural Relics Protection Units
• Selected Bibliography
• Index

Readership: Researchers, general readers interested in the Great Wall of China.
Key Features:

• One of the most systematic and comprehensive works on the Great Wall
• To gain a comprehensive understanding of the Great Wall, one cannot only know its physical location, its start and end points. One must understand the historical background of the Great Wall's construction to be able to evaluate its full historical and scientific value
• In language that is clear and straightforward

Chapter 1 The Great Wall and Many
Theories of Its Origins

1. Past and Present of Great Wall Scholarship

The Great Wall was an important structure for military border defense in ancient China. It has always been closely linked with the national border and security; therefore, it was often a main focus for historians. Accounts of it can be found in historical texts such as works of history and geography, as well as local records such as Records of the Grand Historian（《史记》）, Book of Han（《汉书》）, Book of Wei（《魏书》）, The Commentary on the Water（《水经注》）, Yuanhe Junxian Tuzhi(《元和郡县图志》), and A Reading on the History of Geography.

The first person to achieve a significant accomplishment in the study of the Great Wall was Yang Shoujing, also known as Xingwu（惺吾）, in the Qing Dynasty and Early Republic (1839-1915). He hailed from Yidu in Hubei Province. In the 5th year of Tongzhi（同治） in the Qing Dynasty (1866), Yang co-authored the work Maps of the Changing Geography of Impregnability throughout History（《历代舆地沿革险要图》）, along with Deng Yongxiu（邓永修）. In the 6th year of Guangxu（光绪） (1880), Yang finished the work with another co-author, Rao Dunzhi（饶敦秩）.

In Maps of the Changing Geography of Impregnability throughout History, Yang Shoujing marked the portions of the Great Wall built in the Warring States period, the Qin Shihuang（秦始皇） years, and the Ming dynasty. However, the portions built in the Han, Northern, and Sui dynasties were not included. The maps show great detail for the wall built in the Warring States period in particular. The Great Walls built in the States of Wei, Zhao, Yan, Qi, and Chu, and by King Zhao of Qin are all marked. These maps greatly influenced later scholars. The Historical Atlas of China follows the maps in Yang's book. We do not see maps of the Han, Northern, and Sui dynasty walls as Yang lacked the knowledge of the Great Wall's history in those periods. Yang's maps also contain a number of errors; for example, he places the beginning of the Northern Yan Great Wall at Zaoyang, at the Solitary Rock Gate to the north of Chicheng County. In fact, Zaoyang is at the town of Dagu in Huailai County, not at the Solitary Rock Gate. It also claims that the “Qi Great Wall is at Jufang,” and marks the eastern end of that wall at Langyatai. In fact, in this instance Jufang refers to Wushan (the Xiaotang Mountain) and the Qi Great Wall ends at the Xiaozhu Mountain in the east. Furthermore, Yang's maps do not differentiate the Qin Shihuang Great Wall from the Great Wall by King Zhao of Qin, and also renamed the Ming Liaodong Wall to the Liu Tiao Bian（柳条边） for fear of violating a Qing dynasty language taboo. Still, Maps of the Changing Geography of Impregnability throughout History mapped most parts of the Great Wall, despite its lack of total accuracy and thoroughness; this work greatly contributed to later study of the Great Wall.

In the Republic Period, Wang Guoliang, Shou Pengfei and Zhang Weihua and their research on the Great Wall left a significant impact in academic circles.

Wang Guoliang is from Yiwu in Zhejiang Providence. His book A Study on the Changes of the Great Wall of China was written in the Republic Period in 1928 while he was teaching at Beiping Normal College; it was published in the 20th Year of the Republic (1931) by Commercial Press. The book is over 30,000 words and contains 35 maps. It contains some valuable insights： deciding on the time when the Qi and Chu Great Walls were built, determining the western end of the Northern Yan Great Wall, and presenting the argument that the Northern Wei's “Sai Shang Ji Tu（畿上塞图） is not part of the Great Wall but similar to the Western Han's fortress barriers ... to supplement the Great Wall.” The book has its share of shortcomings： for example, it claims the Fangcheng Mountain is part of a great wall in the Ye and Zhushan Counties in western Hubei Province; it conflates the Ming dynasty border wall and the Han dynasty's frontier fortress; mixes up the Ming dynasty's Liaodong town border wall and the Qing dynasty's The Liu Tiao Bian; and so on. Despite its shortcomings, Wang Guoliang's A Study on the Changes of the Great Wall of China(《中国长城沿革考》) was the first book focusing on studying the Great Wall and is not to be ignored.

Little is known about Shou Pengfei, a Zhejiang native. His book A Study of the Great Wall through Dynasties(《历代长城考》) is 13,600 words long and includes a historical map of the Great Wall. One string-bound printed copy survives, originally published in the 30th year of the Republic (1941). The book makes the points that King Zhao of Qin in the Warring States period built the Great Wall “prior to claiming the River Loop, therefore its northern end stops at Upper County,” and also that “the wall built by Qin Shihuang is by the River but trails northwards, to reach the Yang Mountain Range north of King Zhao's wall and the walls built by the state of Zhao.” The book also states that the Great Wall surpassed the wall built in the Qin dynasty. These statements have all been proven to be correct. Unfortunately, this book based its research on historical texts rather than field investigation, thus its conclusions sometimes head in the wrong direction.

Zhang Weihua, who studied with Guo Jiegang(顾颉刚), published A Study of the Construction of China's Great Wall（《中国长城建置考》） in 1979 by Zhonghua Publishing House. It is a collection of eight theses, among which five were written in the 1930s and 1940s and three written later. The book is about 116,000 words long. Many of its conclusions are correct and concise, such as the Qi State and Chu State Great Walls' dates and reasons for construction, the directions of Wei dynasty Great Wall and that of King Zhao of the State of Qin to the west of the Yellow River, and its argument for defining the Han dynasty border structure as a frontier fortress instead of part of the Great Wall. On the other hand, he was not accurate when asserting, “construction of the Qi State Great Wall originated with the intention of protecting against flooding from the Ji River.” He was also incorrect to state that the Fangcheng Mountain was the wall in Chu State as well as the so-called Northern Zhao Great Wall.

Besides the abovementioned, there were other Great Wall scholars and research done during the Republic Years, for example： Zhang Xiangwen（张相文）'s essay in Geography Magazine（《地学杂志》）on the study of the ancient Great Wall in Baidao Ling at Daqing Mountain in Inner Mongolia; Zhang Xiaoheng（张筱衡）'s works investigating the Wei Great Wall to the West of the Yellow River; and books about the ancient Great Wall in the Chifeng area（赤峰地区） in Inner Mongolia by Li Wenxin（李文信） and Tong Zhuchen（佟柱臣）.

After the founding of People's Republic of China in 1949, the emphasis of Great Wall research shifted to being based in fieldwork. Some works of importance include：

Collection of Survey Reports on China's Great Wall Ruins（《中国长城遗迹调查报告集》）, edited by the Heritage Editorial Board（文物编辑委员会）, was published by Heritage Press（文物出版社） in 1981. It collected a total of fourteen reports： twelve field reports of the Great Wall and two field reports on Jin Dynasty border trenches. These reports involve six provinces, which include Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Shaanxi, Ningxia, Shanxi, and Gansu, and are on the Northern Yan Great Wall, the Great Wall built by King Wuling of Zhao State, the Great Wall by King Zhao of Qin State, the Qin Shihuang Great Wall, the Han and Ming Dynasty Great Walls, and the Jin Dynasty border trenches. These reports give detailed descriptions of newly discovered ruins. For example, the outer Great Wall built in the Han Dynasty in Inner Mongolia's Grassland Bayannur had been previously believed to be a border fortress with enclosing walls and signal towers. Field investigation revealed that the structure was actually two parallel walls oriented from north to south. The Great Wall built by the State of Yan to the north of Chifeng in Inner Mongolia turned out to have a parallel wall fifty kilometers to its south, running from east to west, also built during the State of Yan. This discovery shows that border security for the Chifeng area in ancient China was extremely important, so important that double great walls were built for protection. The Great Wall built by King Wuling in the State of Zhao, south of the Yin Mountain range, had not in prior documents been clearly delineated; these reports also gave a detailed record of the wall's location and the state of the ruins between Hohhot and Baotou.

Based on the fieldwork, the Northern Yan Great Wall in Weichang County in Hebei Province is very well preserved. Emperor Qianlong erected a stele here entitled Ode to Ancient Great Wall（《古长城说》）. Remains from the Warring States period and the Qin and Han Dynasties abound in the neighboring areas, providing important evidence for the relationship between the Northern Yan Great Wall and the Qin and Han Great Wall. In addition, the reports reveal many newly discovered wall ruins, including the Han Dynasty outer Great Wall in Inner Mongolia's Grassland Bayannur, the Northern Yan Great Wall at Weicheng County（围场县） in Hebei Province, the Great Wall by King Zhao of Qin in Guyuan County（固原县） in Ningxia, the Qin Great Wall in Northern Shaanxi Province, the Ming Great Wall in Northern Shanxi Province, etc. There are, however, a few inaccurate reports in this collection. For example, the Qing Dynasty barrier wall in Jiapigou（夹皮沟） in Weichang County was defined as Yan Great Wall. This is a serious misrepresentation. A Jin Dynasty border trench being mistaken for a Jin Dynasty Great Wall is an assertion that cannot be farther away from the truth.

Liu Qian（刘谦）, a staff member at Jinzhou City Museum（锦州市博物馆）, wrote Examining the Defense Function of Ming Great Wall in Liaodong Town（《明辽东镇长城及防御考》）. The author based his book on fieldwork done in 1979 about the eastern tip of the Ming Dynasty Great Wall, which is in the town of Liaodong. This book, both informative and scholarly, gives detailed descriptions of the portion of the Ming Great Wall from Zhuizi Mountain in Suizhong County in the west to the Bianhu Mountain by Yalu Riverin Kuandian Countyin the east, including the orientation of each section, all rivers and mountains crossed, and neighboring towns. Apart from the Great Wall, it also offers a good account of the Liaodong Town garrison, coastal defenses, signal towers, postal stations, and farmland cultivated by military troops. An outstanding feature of this book is its large quantity of illustrations such as maps, measured drawings of towns and rubbings of official seals. They provide good support for the text. The only uncertainty remaining is the exact location of the west end of the wall in Liaodong Town. It seems further research is needed.

Jiayuguan Pass and the Ming Great Wall（《嘉峪关及明长城》）, written by Gao Fengshan（高凤山） and Zhang Junwu（张军武） at the Jiayuguan Pass Cultural Heritage Institute（嘉峪关市文物管理所）, was published by Heritage Press in 1989 and consists of 118,000 words with 24 illustrations. The first half of this book explains the origin of Jiayuguan Pass and the construction and defense of this pass town. Its second half describes the location of the Great Wall at Jiayuguan Pass, measurements of each section, and the terrain along the wall. The book also offers a detailed introduction and description, based on field study, of construction methods of the wall, construction project management, as well as the nearby township, signal towers and the platforms protruding from the walls. This is a highly informative book, an important reference in the study of the Great Wall.

Yue Banghu（岳邦湖） and Zhong Shengzu（钟圣祖） at Provincial Cultural Heritage Institute wrote Shule River Han Dynasty Great Wall Investigation Report（《疏勒河流域汉长城考察报告》）, published in 2001 by Heritage Press. The book is 239,000 words with 72 plates and 65 illustrations. It is divided into two parts, one focusing on the investigation of Great Wall and its signal towers along the Shule River in the Han Dynasty, and the other on the city site of Dunhuang（敦煌） in the Han and Tang Dynasties. The former follows the Shule River eastward and discusses the Great Wall, the positioning of its signal towers and the condition of the ruins in Dunhuang County and Anxi County. The latter gives a detailed introduction of town sites in the Han and Tang Dynasties. The book contains important information for understanding the military, political and economical situation of the Dunhuang area from the Han through the Tang Dynasties. The List of Main Events in Dunhuang and the West in Han and Tang（《汉唐西域与敦煌大事记简辑》） at the end of the book also provides a useful reference.

Published in 1999 by Shandong Friendship Press（山东友谊出版社）, Qi Great Wall（《齐长城》）, about 550,000 words in length with Lu Zongyuan（路宗元） as the editor in chief, is an introductory book aimed at the general public. The book is based on field investigations on-site and gives a complete survey of the Great Wall built by the Qi State. The illustrations Qi Great Wall's Location（《齐长城位置走向图》） and Qi Great Wall Ruins（《齐长城遗址图》） are the results of on-site fieldwork. They lay out the beginning and end of the Qi Great Wall with clarity and precision. The book yields an accurate measurement of 618,893 meters for the entire length of Qi Great Wall. The 1,376 mountains along the wall are marked with accurate locations, directions, terrains and double lines. The carefully selected over 500 photographs show the wall's trends, walls, structure, passes, fortresses and signal towers, as well as the general terrain of this section of the Great Wall. This is truly reliable information for study of the Great Wall. However, the book's eclectic approach includes far too much material, even journals, legends and tales. Its argument that the Qi Great Wall originated “from the need to protect against Ji River（济水） floods” lacks solid proof and fails to convince, as does its assertion that the Wall's construction dates were 588 BC to 555 BC.

Historical Atlas of China, edited by Tan Qixiang（谭其骧）, maps the Great Wall in each dynasty, with very detailed labeling for the Warring States period, and including the states of Qi, Chu, Wei, Zhao, Yan, and Qin of King Zhao. The only state missing is the State of Zhongshan. Most of the Warring States callout is credible except in a few instances. For example, the portions of the Chu State Great Wall marked with “door” and the wall that is north to south can be traced from the historical record. The portions to the north oriented from east to west along Fangcheng Mountain are not recorded in historical texts, nor are there any remains to be seen. This is obviously problematic.

Placing Zaoyang at the River of Lightning between Guuyuan County （沽源县）and Blue Banner Camp, at the western end of the Northern Yan Great Wall at Huaian County west of Zhangjiakou City are both unfounded. There is not any Zhao Great Wall north of the Yinshan Mountain Range. What is there is actually a Qin Shihuang Great Wall. On the Zhao State map, the Qin Shihuang Great Wall is mistaken for the Great Wall built by King Wuling of State of Zhao. This map also equates the Qin Shihuang Great Wall with the King Zhao's Great Wall, which was extended during Qin Shihuang time. The caption is inaccurate as well. The parts of the Great Wall to the north of Yinshan Mountain that were used in the Han Dynasty and built in the States of Qin, Yan, and in the Han Dynasty along the Shule River were marked correctly as solid wall. The Ming Dynasty Great Wall in Liaodong Town was marked as a trench wall, a conclusion drawn from Maps of the Changing Geography of Impregnability throughout History by Yang Shoujing. The maps and illustrations were drawn based on academic researches. Their level of accuracy reflects the depth of the academic studies on the Great Wall.

Using satellite remote sensing to survey the Great Wall is an advanced technology. China began using satellite remote sensing technology in the 80s. This fell under the aegis of the Center for Remote Sensing in the former State Department of Geology and Mineral Resources. It surveyed the parts of the Great Wall within Beijing's jurisdiction in 1986 to 1987 and the parts in the Ningxia area. Both surveys produced good results. The result of the satellite remote sensing survey shows that the wall in the Beijing area measures 629 kilometers in length, with 827 towers, 71 passes, and 8 camps. The wall in Ningxia measures 1，507 kilometers, with 706 towers, 1，065 platforms, and 282 fort camps. The margin of error is less than 1%. The intact wall and the parts which are in ruins are clearly distinguishable on the satellite infrared film.

Based on satellite remote sensing technology, we found that the well-preserved and connected Great Wall in the Beijing area totals 123 kilometers, about 19.55% of the total length of the Great Wall. The well-preserved Great Wall in the Ningxia area measures 648 kilometers, about 42.99% of the entire wall. This technology's high-resolution images of the wall structure enable us to identify the chronological sequence of the construction. For instance, the ancient wall built before the Ming Dynasty is mostly along the Ming Great Wall. During the construction of the Ming Great Wall, some older walls were straightened (eg. in Shixia and Qing Shui Ding), some were abandoned and new sites were built (Guangtuo Mountain and Hezi Jian). The Ming Great Wall in Beijing area was primarily built and updated on the foundation from previous eras. Unfortunately, satellite remote sensing is unable to pinpoint the time when the older wall was built.

2. Defining the Great Wall

What is the Great Wall? The Great Wall was an important military defensive construction in ancient China. Numerous records can be found in ancient Chinese texts. Important sites of the Great Wall from ancient China remain today, such as the Great Walls built in the States of Yan, Zhao, Qi, Qin by King Zhao, by Qin Shihuang, Han Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, etc. Their form and structure are clearly visible. They provide reliable sources for giving a definition for the Great Wall.

This book attempts to define the Great Wall as such：“The Great Wall is a high wall fortified using earth, stones and bricks. It is an ancient military defensive construction for border protection.”

We can also reorganize the definition as such：“The Great Wall is an ancient military defensive construction for border protection. It is a high wall constructed with earth, stones, and bricks.”

This Definition Contains Five Elements：

1) The Great Wall Is a Continuous Wall

This refers to the structure and characteristics of the Great Wall. This is the most fundamental feature of the Great Wall and it is thus named. Its continuity contrasts the closeness of normal city walls. Cities enclosed by walls appeared very early in this country. The shapes were usually square, rectangular, circular, oval, or irregularly shaped. All these share a common feature, which is that two ends of the wall meet to form an enclosure.

The Great Wall shares one characteristic with a regular city wall — that is, both are tall walls. Nonetheless, the two are drastically different in form. The Great Wall is a continuous long wall, meandering hundreds and thousands miles long, one end never meeting the other. Its unidirectional nature is the fundamental difference between the Great Wall and common city or fortress walls. “A continuous wall” characterizes the Great Wall. Although the Great Wall sometimes gets interrupted by rivers and valleys, its continuity is not affected as far as the grand scheme of the wall is concerned. Meanwhile, each section of the wall between rivers and valleys is in itself linear.

Military defense lines ever since ancient times cannot avoid being interrupted by rivers, roads and so on. This however does not affect its holistic defensive function. For example, many rivers likewise interrupt the Maginot Line built by the French to protect against Germany, but it is still a continuous defense line. The continuous nature of the Great Wall enabled its protective function. In China before and during the Qin Dynasty, combat between soldiers on chariots was popular. The military might of an army was judged by the numbers of chariots it owned. The northern nomads relied on cavalry, therefore the more horsemen the stronger their military force. Both chariots and horses were mobile and swift. Under such circumstance, only a wall that was continuous could prevent enemy invasion. This historical context caused the Great Wall to be an effective defense mechanism.

Besides being lengthy, the Great Wall also had to be very tall in order for it to provide an effective defense. In ancient China, all soldiers were men, averaging 1.6 to 1.7 meters tall. Standing on a chariot, they could reach 3 meters. Sitting in a camel, they could measure 3.5 meters. Therefore, the Great Wall had to be tall to prevent enemies' advances. The Great Wall been altered since ancient times, but the remaining wall measures 8 meters high at its tallest. Even an eight-meter high wall should be enough to stop advances by army chariots and cavalry. Even foot soldiers could not climb up these walls without cloud ladders or tower vehicles.

2) The Great Wall Is Built with Earth, Stones and Bricks

This describes the materials and method with which the Great Wall was built. This also reveals the nature of the Great Wall. Its main body consists of dirt, but is fortified with stones and bricks. The earthen wall is tamped down with wood or stone tampers to solidify the dirt. Stones are used to fortify the wall in mountainous areas where dirt is not plentiful. On the other hand, in areas where large rocks are difficult to get, earth and small stones are mixed to build the wall and stones are used to cover it. No matter what materials are used to make the wall, stones are the key material. The Great Wall can be called a “stone wall”. Walls made of stone appeared as early as the Warring States period, for example the Qi Great Wall in Shandong Changqing County, the Wei Great Wall in Henan Lin County, and the Qin Great Wall near Baotou in ...

Table of contents

• Introductory Notes on the Publication
• Foreword
• Chapter 1 The Great Wall and Many Theories of Its Origins
• Chapter 2 Early Stage of Great Wall Mass Construction (Part One) —The Warring States Period
• Chapter 3 The Early Stage of Great Wall Mass Construction (Part Two) — Warring States
• Chapter 4 Time of Overall Transformation of the Great Wall — Qin and Han
• Chapter 5 Period of the Great Wall's Partial Expansion (Part One) — Northern Wei to Sui and Tang Dynasties
• Chapter 6 Period of the Great Wall's Partial Expansion (Part Two) — Liao and Jin Dynasties
• Chapter 7 The Period of Overall Maintenance for the Great Wall — Ming and Qing Dynasties
• Chapter 8 Epilogue
• Appendix
• Selected Bibliography
• Index