The New Wealth of Nations

Surjit S. Bhalla

• Publisher: S&S India
• Year: 2017
• eBook ISBN: 9789386797032
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Business General
• Index: Business

The emerging world was poor and illiterate just forty years ago. Today, over 70 per cent of the world's middle class resides in the erstwhile poor countries; world income inequality is down to levels last observed in 1870; and there has been a large reduction in absolute poverty. What accounts for such rapid development and catch-up? Distinguished economist Surjit S. Bhalla's The New Wealth of Nations offers a short answer—the spread of education.
The very large increase in college graduates in the non-Western world, the growing educational achievements of women, and the radical change in gender roles is critical to the understanding of current-day mega-trends. Indeed, this unprecedented development—which creates competition globally and lowers employment costs—is also why world inflation has been low, and declining, for nearly twenty years.
Here is a book that breaks new ground. Besides identifying the fallacies in anti-globalization rhetoric—voiced by Brexit and Trump supporters—it points out a major lacuna in current attempts to measure wealth inequality. Through a series of compelling arguments, anecdotes, studies, calculations, tables, and charts, Bhalla emphatically reminds us that education is the new wealth, and is, in fact, currently of a greater magnitude than financial wealth, and much more equally distributed.
Even while acknowledging the giant strides made by the developing world, The New Wealth of Nations investigates the downsides to the explosion of education and technology, and why countries, rich and emerging, will have to explore options like basic income and negative income tax, so that a new welfare order, appropriate for the changed—and changing—21st century can emerge. * Surjit S. Bhalla has been recently appointed as a member of PM Modi's Economic Advisory Council, and his new work is a ground-breaking achievement that argues for a new welfare order across nations which is better suited for the constantly transforming time we live in.
* Through a series of compelling arguments, anecdotes, studies, calculations, tables, and charts, noted economist Surjit S. Bhalla establishes in his latest book that education is the new wealth of nations.
* This book offers insights into the definitions of the poor, the middle class, and the rich, while relating each of these to advances in schooling attainment. It explores the economic reasons behind the political success of globalization in the Western world till the early 2000s, and now its fall from grace in these same countries as notably evidenced by Brexit and the rise of Donald Trump.

1

The Times Are Changing

Come writers and critics

Who prophesize with your pen

And keep your eyes wide

The chance won’t come again

And don’t speak too soon

. . .

For the times they are a-changin’

—The Times They Are A-Changin’ by Bob Dylan
(music and lyrics by Bob Dylan, The Times They Are A-Changin’, 1964)

The 1960s should be remembered, will be remembered, and are remembered for the revolution they ushered in our thinking, in our music, and in our attitudes. World War II was over, and globalization was ascendant. Within two decades, the revolution gained pace. And it happened so fast. What happened, and why, is the story behind this book.

What happened? Recall that the Western world (including Japan) was fast recovering from the wars and depression of the previous thirty years. In these countries, per capita incomes expanded at a scorching 4.1 per cent per annum pace between 1951 and 1970. The welfare of the 700 million richest people was expanding, and expanding fast. The developing world (all countries outside of the West and the Soviet Union) housed 2.6 billion poor people in 1970 and their incomes had increased at a paltry 2.3 per cent per annum.

And then it happened. Starting around 1980, the transformation in the world, and in the lives of the poor, has been nothing short of radical, huge, and unprecedented. Over the last thirty-six years (1981–2016), the rich population has expanded its incomes at a 1.4 per cent rate; the poor world rate of expansion of income—4.1 per cent per annum. The Industrial Revolution has been rightly considered transformative for the Western world; but any objective analysis must surely conclude that transforming the lives of more than 80 per cent of the world’s population, within merely thirty to forty years, is a much greater milestone. The intent here is not to compare but rather to illustrate. We must recognize and applaud that what we have just witnessed is the mother of all transformations.

In the iconic 1967 movie The Graduate, Benjamin (Dustin Hoffman) returns home from college and at a dinner party hosted in his honour gets pulled aside by Mr McGuire. Mr McGuire tells Benjamin, ‘I just want to say one word to you, just one word.’

Nervously, Benjamin says, ‘Yes, sir.’

‘Are you listening?’

‘Yes, Sir.’

‘Plastics. There is a great future in plastics.’ And so ended one of the most quotable 20 seconds in film history.

What has made this revolution possible? In a word, education. In two words, human capital. In a sentence—the catch-up of the East with the West in terms of schooling, and therefore earning skills, and therefore incomes, which has ultimately resulted in an improvement in world inequality. This process is nowhere near complete. In some countries like South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, and China, it can be rightly said that the process has reached a more advanced stage than in others like India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. And as inexorable progress does take place, the world will have less poor, and become more equal. By 2030, world inequality will be the lowest it has been since the (relatively) halcyon days of the mid-19th century, i.e., the lowest ever.

I do not mean to argue or imply that human capital is the whole story. Critics have a tendency to latch on to broad statements and then say, ‘But not so in Timbuktu’. Of course, there are other important causal influencers of growth, of catch-up and of poverty reduction. The fortunes of the citizens of a nation are affected by the political environment and political leadership. For a long time it was believed that East Asian economies grew faster because they did not have democracies to shackle them. That ‘wisdom’ was soon withdrawn when it was documented that most of the African and Latin American economies were growing very slowly owing to the fact that these two continents had the largest share of dictatorships. But strong leadership matters a great deal—witness communist China under Mao Zedong and authoritarian China under Deng Xiaoping (and his successors).

Explaining incomes: Education

Agreed that a Revolution is an emotive and extensive issue, and hence demands far more than just a uni-causal explanation, but some causes are more equal than others. And in this regard the cause of education towers over most of the competition. By far, the most profound effect on income is that of human capital. And to think that the queen (why the queen and not the king is explored in Chapter 8, i.e., a changing social order requires ‘she’ to have an equal standing with ‘he’) of social sciences (economics) had missed this transformative cause until as late as the late 1950s! It was then that the genius of Gary Becker—a Nobel laureate from the University of Chicago—unleashed on to the world his all-encompassing treatise on family, fertility, and most importantly (not least for this book), how labour earnings would evolve in the future.

One other important aspect of global education is that it has not all been good news, especially for the losers. The ‘losers’ are individuals in the West, and the loss is in terms of income growth. Economic growth in the developed world has slowed over the last couple of decades, and ‘secular stagnation’ is how a leading US economist, Lawrence Summers, has described it. This stagnation means that there is now an ever-widening gap between the aspirations of the Western middle class and a now emerged reality. No longer is the future road paved with healthy growth.

For the last decade or so, the educated workforce in the West is caught, ironically, in a problem that plagued the illiterate East not so long ago. The educated workforce meets Sir Arthur Lewis, another Nobel laureate, and one of the economic geniuses of the 20th century. In an influential article written in 1954, Sir Arthur Lewis outlined why the wages of the unskilled, uneducated worker in the East (aka developing economies or emerging markets) would not rise, and would stay stuck at a constant, minimum, subsistence level.

Marry Sir Arthur with Gary Becker and what do you get? The misfortune of the college-educated Western skilled worker and the increasing fortune of the college-educated worker in the East. In a poignant and ironical twist, the reality today (and which explains much of the recent past and the next decade or two) is the reality of ‘Unlimited Supply of Skilled Labour’ (sometimes referred to as USSL). It is this phenomenon that explains why labour incomes in the West have been reduced to a trickle from a trot—and hence, why the educated Western worker feels the pain. Also, why world inequality has declined and will continue declining. Score one for global education.

There are several radical implications of this expansion in education and the transformation it is making possible. For centuries, make that since Adam and Eve, men have ruled the world. This dominance is changing, and is directly linked to the expansion of girl’s education. Just look at the following numbers; across the world, women constituted less than 25 per cent of the world’s population attending college in 1900; in 1980, this percentage was 41 per cent; in 2014, the fraction had risen to around 48.7 percent.¹

This is a clear indication of increasing equality, and men losing further ground in the future. Score two for global education.

Today you obtain education, tomorrow you conquer the workplace, day after the corporate boardrooms, and on the fourth day, the political landscape. This is happening, and is happening now. As discussed in Chapters 5 and 8, there are several unintended, but hugely positive, consequences of this expansion, equalization, and emerging superiority of women in the educated workplace. There is first the obvious (post-Becker) benefit of population control, an important ingredient in the crucial battle against climate change. More educated women have fewer children, period. Fewer children mean better educated children and a lower carbon footprint. A second and a less appreciated consequence will be a decline in violence, as men commit most (more than 90 per cent) crimes, and domestic violence will decline as the woman becomes an equal, if not the dominant member of the family. A lower carbon footprint and less domestic violence. Score three and four for global education.

There are other important fallouts from this radical transformation, from the emergence and reality of USSL. There are some policymakers in the developing world who, unfortunately, have not grasped this most profound and penetrating side effect of global education—the structural decline of inflation in the world (see Chapter 7 for details).² There is many a monetarist being found six feet under because he failed to see the connection—when there is a glut of skilled workers whose wages cannot rise, how can there be inflation? Remember, inflation is a sustained rise in the price level—a very large component of the cost of production is the cost of labour (remember Marx?). And if this cost is stable and flat, how can you have a sustained rise in inflation? Score a major five for the globalization of education.

Should one worry about wealth inequality?

If the income inequality discussion were not enough (and perhaps because world inequality trends do not justify the anguish), the enlightened world has moved towards a concern about wealth inequality. It is believed, and estimates prove so, that more than half of the world’s wealth is in the hands of the top 1 per cent (Chapter 6; Credit Suisse [2016]).

But let us step back from shock and awe. Though I was a latecomer to economics, an important part of my education in post-Becker economics was that education was the determinant of income for most individuals, say above 99 per cent. Education, or human capital, was wealth; one invested in education in the early years, and derived a flow of income from this investment in later years. How different is it from wealth owned in the form of shares of a firm, or deposits in a bank? But strangely, the Credit Suisse and other proliferating wealth indices (Wealth-X, Forbes, etc.) do not include any portion of the wealth embodied in education. Land, yes. Machinery, yes. But not human capital. A beginning towards a rectification of this error of omission is attempted in Chapter 6, and the results are shockingly enlightening. In 2016, developing countries owned about 40 per cent of the total educational wealth in the world, conservatively estimated at US $330 trillion in 2016. The financial wealth in the world, as estimated by Credit Suisse, was US $256 trillion in 2016. More equal education wealth exceeding very unequal financial wealth? Yes. Score a major six for education.

Along with concern about increased inequality in the West, is the interest in and disbelief over the increasing number of billionaires in the East. This actually forms a large part of the implicit argument against globalization. The ‘logic’ is: ‘Look at these poor countries, with abject poverty.’ Yet the capitalist system is tolerating an uncomfortable increase in the number of billionaires (generally men, and generally considered, possibly not inaccurately, playboys). This perception reveals a superficial understanding of the importance of size—the size of the population that is. If dollar incomes are going up for the poor, then why not also for the rich? And with each rise in average dollar incomes, the fraction (and number) of millionaires and billionaires increases.

The number of billionaires has to do with the tails of distribution, and the tails are relatively unaffected by the rest of the distribution. Two factors explain the rise in the number of billionaires in the East: first, average per capita incomes have increased threefold since 1980; second, size. Even a very small constant percentage in the tail can lead to a large increase in the number. Indeed, the number of billionaires in most parts of the world can be explained by the rise in the fraction of individuals with college attendance (see Chapter 6).

A matter of size: China and India

You must be wondering: more than halfway through the introduction, and still no mention of the middle class, and little mention of China and India? This book would not have been possible without referring to these two population giants. There are many reasons why the two countries need to be discussed jointly— together they house about 40 per cent of the world’s population. It takes 171 out of 204 countries to match India’s population, while it takes only three more to match China’s. The cupboard of globalization is bare without the content—40 per cent of the world’s population today, and in another ten years, 40 per cent of the world’s income—in the hands of these two country giants. Time to rectify that anomaly.

The general story is of education as ‘the great transformer’; the foot soldiers are the populations of developing economies, particularly China and India. The global transformation would not be as revolutionary if it were not for this size phenomenon. In 1980, the combined population of China and India was 1.7 billion, slightly more than half the population in the East. It is this population that has seen the largest strides in higher education, in per capita incomes, and in the growth of the middle class.

These two nations have been alike in so many other ways that they are better classified as ‘twins separated at birth’. We will have occasion to discuss this in much greater detail as we move further ahead in this book. At this point, it is important to recognize the following fact, and difference. The twins are not identical and have chosen distinctly different paths to development. India, a democracy, grew at the same rate as China for hundreds of years prior to 1980, a fact explored in some detail in Chapter 3. Since 1980, communist China has grown at a much faster pace than India, though India has also markedly accelerated its growth. The future might just have India catching up with the large ahistorical gap in the per capita incomes of the twins.

An overview of the middle class

Back to the present—what is the middle class? How does one define it, and what are its contours, and why does it matter? In an unpublished manuscript written more than a decade ago for the Peterson Institute for International Economics (PIIE), I had discussed in some detail the measurement and historical importance of the middle class. The title of the manuscript was Second among Equals: The Middle Class Kingdoms of India and China, May 2007 (hereafter, sometimes referred to as SAE). Subsequent to that work, there has been a burgeoning of interest in the middle class. As of 2005, when I started work on the Middle Class project, there were only 761,000 mentions, ever, of the middle class in publications (Google Scholar); by 2016, this number had jumped to 1.24 million. Chapter 11 contains a quick summary of this literature, and in addition, contains details about the nature, size, and influence of the middle class on policy and development.

As almost definitionally expected, there is a strong relationship in the East between the magnitude of the middle class (at least as defined by us) and the magnitude of college attendees. In many ways, expansion of tertiary (college) education is a sine qua non for the expansion of the middle class. The size of the middle class matters for policymaking, and matters for growth. One ignores it at one’s own peril. We won’t make that mistake—and therefore Chapter 11 is devoted to this exploration and analysis. Score seven for global education.

There is another important fallout of this global expansion in education and the middle class. This change parallels the change in control (from men to women), discussed in detail in Chapter 8. There is an additional transformation—it is the changing of the guard at the helm of affairs—the elite. First, it was the feudal elite that ruled the masses, then came the industrial elite, and later the corporate elite. In this almost seamless transition, the same individuals held power—mostly white, upper class, well-educated men. There are two transitions happening around the world. The...

Table of contents

• Front Cover
• Title Page
• Dedication
• 1. The Times Are Changing
• 2. Education–Globalization and Its Confounding Contents
• 3. As the World Turns: From Colonialism to Freedom
• 4. Progress: Lost in 480 Years, Gained in 48 Years
• 5. The Education–Income Connection
• 6. Education As Wealth
• 7. Unlimited Supply of Skilled Labour (USSL): Causes and Consequences
• 8. The Future is Women: Women and Transformation
• 9. Education Makes the World Equal
• 10. Poverty is Old, Basic Income is New
• 11. Education: The Driver of the Middle Class
• 12. Education and the Democratization of the Elite
• 13. You Can’t Fool Mother Nature
• Notes
• Select Bibliography
• Acknowledgements
• Copyright