Effective Observation in Social Work Practice

Maureen O′Loughlin, Steve O′Loughlin, Author, Maureen O′Loughlin, Steve O′Loughlin

• Publisher: Learning Matters
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9781446282779, 9781446282762
• eBook ISBN: 9781473908321
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Social Work
• Index: Social Sciences

Introducing the concept of observation to social work students can be a complex and challenging task. Assessing their observation skills and assignments can be even harder, especially if much of this work takes place implicitly, throughout their training and placements. This book will help students to grasp the fundamentals of social work observation, from the theories and methods to how these can be demonstrated in everyday practice. Skills are covered throughout, as well as effective observation work with different client groups and in different settings. The authors argue that an observant social worker is an effective and resilient one, and demonstrate this through case study material and research summaries.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Theories of Observation

Nicky Ryden

Steve O'Loughlin

Meeting Professional Standards

This chapter will help you to begin to meet the following Professional Standards:

• Professionalism: Identify and behave as a professional social worker, committed to professional development.
• Values and ethics: Apply social work ethical principles and values to guide professional practice.
• Diversity: Recognise diversity and apply anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive principles in practice.
• Knowledge: Apply knowledge of social sciences, law and social work practice theory.
• Intervention and skills: Use judgement and authority to intervene with individuals, families and communities to promote independence, provide support and prevent harm, neglect and abuse.
• Critical reflection and analysis: Apply critical reflection and analysis to inform and provide a rationale for professional decision-making.

This chapter will focus on professional roles and responsibilities including ethical considerations and why we observe service users. It will include an overview of perception and objectivity and a discussion of the impact of values and issues of interpretation. It will also discuss data protection, freedom of information and ‘property’ considerations.

Observation is, at its simplest, the way we see or perceive the world, but the way that people see the world can differ in that they tend to focus or attend to different stimuli, for example, visual and/or verbal stimuli. They can also tend to focus on specific things in certain situations so, for example, the majority of social workers are focused on risk, change and protection, though for some support can take priority. In some societies we are aware of the dangers from cars if we are pedestrians. We might also be influenced by advertisements trying to persuade us to buy various commodities, but if you suddenly went to live in a world where you faced threats from dangerous animals such as lions, rhinoceros and elephants you would very quickly need to develop senses that would enable you to respond to different stimuli and the potential dangers.

You would learn to read the environment that you were in; this might include listening to the amount of activity or the inactivity that was present. You might also begin to recognise smells that were present, if you survived long enough. You might begin to recognise or make links with things in the environment that enable you to become more alert to the dangers, such as plants that animals avoided and also things that might help you to survive, such as the plants which animals ate. You would test out your ideas or theories about which things you noticed had an impact. You might have to take great care not to focus too much on one aspect of the environment, such as the lions, as you might not see the elephants coming or, equally, ignore or disregard the environment that you are in because it was familiar and, therefore, known. Additionally, you might not want to travel alone in a potentially hostile environment as having another pair of eyes could increase your ability to see any dangers in that environment.

What you see depends on where you stand physically, emotionally, perceptually, culturally, socially and how attuned your perceptual equipment is to the tasks at hand. Making sense of, or interpreting, what you see will greatly aid your understanding of people and situations but your understanding will depend on a number of different factors; these might include how often, or frequently, you observe, the intensity or duration of the observation, where the observations take place, whether the setting is familiar or unfamiliar, who you observe, how old they are, what their gender and race are, the extent of their development and your focus, e.g. risk, change, protection or support.

Activity 1.1

Try to find out the frequency of observation of children who are subject to safeguarding plans by different local authorities in your area.

Would you find a consistent or variable approach? How much consistency or variation do you think you would find? What was the range – did it extend from weekly, fortnightly, to monthly and what did these periods tell you about the level of concern there is in relation to the children? Are there regional and national standards?

Observation is such a central task to social work activity that it is often taken for granted, with little consideration being given to its complexities and demands. Only when patent failures of observation occur do we acknowledge the centrality of this activity, for example, when child abuse cases identify a litany of injuries on a young child the immediate reaction is ‘how could anyone not notice?’ Or when a vulnerable adult is found to have been injured in a care setting or an older person is found to have wandered away and died of exposure, the same question arises. The purpose of this book is to explore how we observe, the knowledge and skills needed to ensure observations are correctly interpreted, the barriers to effective observation and the many and varied contexts in which observation occurs in social work practice.

Professional Roles and Responsibilities

A central role for social workers outlined in section one of the professional ‘Standards of Proficiency’ is to conduct assessments of risk and need, to recognise and respond to unexpected situations and to manage uncertainty; to recognise signs of harm, abuse and neglect and to respond appropriately (Health and Care Professions Council, 2012, p7). A significant part of such practice is to understand and utilise various aspects of observation. However, as Horwath notes, observation is ‘an activity that is not used to its maximum potential’ (Horwath, 2010, p67), even though according to Fawcett (1996, p3):

Observation is a skill almost anyone can develop. It is a kind of perceptive watching, an informed way of looking that raises awareness and sharpens understanding. It helps to bring to notice what might otherwise be overlooked.

Developing an ‘informed way of looking’ that brings what might be overlooked to our attention is a practice skill that is not often specifically considered; rather, it will be implicit in many discussions that take place, both informally and formally, as pieces of information are shared and debated between workers. What can be overlooked is the status of those ‘observations’ and the thinking that led to them being identified and shared as significant. There is, therefore, a clear responsibility not only to see and comment upon what is happening in the professional arena, but also to take the time to reflect upon, and attempt to develop, an objective understanding of what has been observed.

Observations which are not reflected upon are wasted effort. It is only when practitioners seek to understand the meanings behind what is seen that the real worth of observational practices are realised.

(Nutbrown and Carter, 2010, p120)

This is what might be called the specialist skill of observing, the retention of some objectivity, while applying a critical analysis that will help us to understand a sequence of observed events and the relationships between them (Bolton, 2010; Woodcock Ross, 2011). Such an activity requires us to see, to record what we have seen, to take time to reflect upon and seek to understand what it might mean and consider whether it has significance in our understanding of the interaction or behaviour under consideration. Given the range of visual images, and the range of sensory inputs that any interaction with a service user can encapsulate, the practice of observation can seem overwhelming. This is where an understanding of different approaches to observation can help the practitioner.

Observations can be ‘narrative’ (subjective) or ‘scientific’ (objective) (Tanner and le Riche, 1999), that is, they can be a record of what has happened in a particular context, or focused by a framework that defines what will be observed and for how long. Both have strengths. A narrative observation will attempt to comprehensively capture what happens in a defined interaction, describing the actions and words of all the principal protagonists present. As such, it will be influenced by the perceptions of the observer, by the language used to record events and whether it is occurring overtly or covertly. A scientific approach will attempt to specify the objectives of the observation, refining what will be recorded and for how long, it may use an observation tool that shapes the way the information is recorded and will usually be time limited. Both approaches have value though neither should be used exclusively. A narrative observation of a complex family situation will quickly be swamped by the mass of detail on interactions, speech and action. While it can give a sense of family dynamics and of what is important to family members, it will probably take a more scientific or focused approach to observe how the needs of a child with a disability, or of an older person are being responded to by the family.

Darlington and Scott (2002), in their discussion of observation in research practice, note that observations offer an opportunity to access events as they occur and, therefore, require little extra effort from those who are participating. There are limitations to what is observable; observation does not tell us what people are thinking or feeling, and if we know we are being observed, self-consciousness can intervene and affect the way we behave. What the observer ‘sees’ and records will be affected by their own perceptions of what is significant at that time. But despite these limitations, observation can be an important tool when working with individuals, who, for whatever reason, have limited verbal skills. Observation also has a role in evaluating practice, providing feedback on practice and in social work management.

Methods/Approaches to Observation

Although these will be explored more fully in Chapter 2, it will be useful to outline the main approaches to observation in this chapter. A narrative method can be characterised as a naturalistic method, that is, the observer does not seek to influence what happens, only to record what does happen. A narrative method might involve the close watching of a child(ren) for a period of ten minutes, then going to another space to record what was observed. It has been argued that this produces a higher quality of observation (because it is concentrated) and of insight (Elfer, 2005, cited in Nutbrown and Carter, 2010), as the activity of writing produces insights into what is happening. This is closely akin to the ‘process recording’ which practitioners who qualified before the mid-1980s will recall undertaking on a regular basis during their training. Possibly the best known, and most extensively written up, narrative approach is the ‘Tavistock method’, or infant observation. A series of intense observations of a very young child (usually under 12 months) was undertaken for a period of one year, by child psychoanalysts in training, and later adapted for use by other practitioners including social workers (Fawcett, 1996).

Another narrative method is the ‘target child’ approach, developed by Sylva et al. (1980) as a more scientific method of observing a single child in their setting, using a tool for recording the child's activity based on agreed codes for observed behaviours and interactions. This is still narrative, but the record is formalised and makes it easier to analyse the data, to recognise patterns in the child's behaviour and also to reduce observer subjectivity and improve comparability between observers.

Scientific observation is more likely to begin with a hypothesis that the observation is seeking to prove or disprove. To this end, the observer might manipulate the situation – an example of this would be Ainsworth et al.‘s (1971) study of attachment behaviour in which young children are exposed to a ‘strange situation’. Such observations may use sampling methods to explore how a space is utilised, how a group of children behaves at certain times, or how certain interactions are responded to, by recording what is happening for one minute every ten minutes. These methods might rely on checklists or tally sheets to record the data. The results can be quantified and could be helpful in making a case for resources or in confirming that certain behaviours are disruptive to others in a group. Such an observation might be preceded by a more naturalistic observation in order to determine what needs to be sampled.

Ethical Considerations

A comment frequently made (as social workers and other caring professionals discuss situations that provoke both their curiosity and their concern about the individuals with whom they are working) is ‘I wish I could be a fly on the wall when …’. The desire to become a hidden observer in the effort to understand what is really happening can become a real ethical dilemma when there are suspicions that serious harm may be being done to vulnerable individuals. The exposure of serious abuse of people who lack a voice has been, on a number of occasions, exposed by hidden filming. The programme made by the BBC Panorama team in May 2011 on Winterbourne View is an example of how undercover filming by journalists exposed a regime of poor care and brutality in a private hospital for people with learning disabilities (Flynn and Citarella, 2012).

Tanner and le Riche (1999) remind us that observation is a part of communication and interaction and as such might be called ‘tacit’ or informal observation but which will nevertheless inform practice. When we make arrangements for a formal, or intentional, observation to inform professional judgement then issues of power associated with being the observer and the observed need to be considered. There are settings where a one-way screen might be routinely used to observe both the practitioner and the service user, for example, in clinical settings and formal interview suites where witnesses are being interviewed. In most circumstances the fact that observations are being undertaken as a professional activity should be made explicit to the person or persons being observed and their consent should be sought. In doing so, the reason for the observation should be explained and the time frame and situation, how it will be recorded, what will happen to the material and who will have access to the material all need to be clarified. This does not mean that information gained through informal observation cannot be used in an assessment, but in fairness this should also be explained in preliminary discussions to formulate the professional relationship. Respectful assessment is based on openness and honesty (Nutbrown and Carter, 2010). If there is a need for covert observation then the implications of this need to be carefully assessed and discussed with those responsible and accountable for the actions of the observers.

Observation is not a neutral activity (Murphy and Dingwall, 2001); being the object of an observation causes anxiety and can impact on how a person behaves. The imbalance of power between adults and children presents ethical and practical dilemmas for any adult wishing to engage in work with children (Alderson, 1995) either as a professional, with a specific task, or as a researcher. Being an observer can also be challenging, particularly if the situation involves witnessing distressing activity or emotional distress (Tanner and Le Riche, 1999). Resisting the impulse to intervene or to comfort, or to maintain the stance of observer of the situation can also be difficult (Quitak, 2004; McMahon and Farnfield, 2004). In the research literature there is extensive discussion (Robson, 1993) of the implications and constraints of participant and non-participant observation which are also applicable to professional activity as an observer.

Theories of Observation

There are many theories or ideas that guide and help us understand our observation or perceptions. Payne (2005) has developed some ideas which he groups under three broad headings: individualist, collective and therapeutic. These approaches can be described as psychological, social and economic theoretical perspectives. Individual perspectives of what we see or observe are influenced by who we are; so, for example, if we are excessively fearful of others we will generally avoid fearful s...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Publisher Note
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Editors and Contributors
• Series Editor's Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Theories of Observation
• Chapter 2 Approaches to Observation Practice
• Chapter 3 Practical Techniques for the Observation of Service Users
• Chapter 4 Observation with Disabled Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities
• Chapter 5 Using Observation in Training and Development
• Chapter 6 Groups and Observations
• Conclusion
• Appendix 1 Professional Capabilities Framework
• References
• Index