Introducing Public Relations

Theory and Practice

Keith Butterick

• Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd
• Year: 2011
• ISBN:
  9781446243282
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Public Relations
• Index: Business

Introducing Public Relations is your guide to the basics of public relations: where it came from, what it means and what issues the industry faces today. It takes readers from the origins of PR all the way to the newest theoretical debates, explaining along the way the changes and development of the role of the PR practitioner. With interviews and ?day in the life? examples from a wide range of professionals in the industry students will learn what PR practitioners do, what they think and how the industry really works. Putting the student first, this book:

• Gives a grounded, critical coverage of the history and theory of PR, so students understand not just the what but the how and why
• Covers all aspects of PR in practice, from in-house and consultancies to government, sport, NGO and corporate PR
• Packs each chapter with case studies, anecdotes from the field and career advice from expert PR professionals
• Helps easy revision with exercises, summaries and checklist.

Highly accessible and engaging, there is no better headstart to understanding what PR is all about. It is the perfect text for any students encountering public relations theory and practice for the first time.

Part One

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THEORY

1

INTRODUCING THE THEORY

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THEORY

Part One does not provide an in-depth analysis of every public relations (PR) theory and different area of research, instead it is an overview of why theory matters in PR and provides a detailed analysis and critique of the dominant model or paradigm of excellence theory. PR theory is based on and related to practice which is why two of the most important aspects of current PR practice, reputation management and crisis management, are discussed in detail in chapters 4 and 5 respectively. For many reputation management is how PR should be defined, as it represents its future and has been embraced enthusiastically by many in the industry. However, there are those who would express caution believing that PR is not in a position to fulfil or meet such demands. Crisis management, according to some commentators, demonstrates the practice of PR at its best and most effective – at the centre stage of events, providing clear information and help at the most difficult times. Part One closes with a consideration of PR and ethics which is now a vitally important part of PR practice. This chapter also analyses some of the difficult ethical issues facing the individual PR practitioner as well as the whole industry.

The notion that PR has both a historical and a theoretical basis may appear strange to some but it does indeed possess this and that is important. PR theory is vital because its aim is to assist practitioners in the practice of PR, making them better and more effective. When looking at the history of PR it is worth noting that some pre-20th century events have been incorrectly described as PR events. PR starts in the 20th century and is linked to the growth of the media as it begins to influence actions, behaviour and policy. Attempting to get coverage in the media was for a long time the primary function of PR and the main qualification for working in the industry was the ability to write a news release that would be used in the media.

PR is a relatively new discipline which is epitomised by the debate surrounding its definition. Some subjects are easily defined, history or mathematics for example. PR, however, appears to have several definitions and this fact is used by critics to demonstrate its fundamental weakness. However, PR is essentially a practice based subject and as its practice changes and evolves then it could be argued that its definition will also evolve. In the early years of the 21st century we are currently going through a period of fundamental and radical change, with digital media transforming our channels of communication and the practice of journalism. This has, and will continue to have, a major effect on the way PR is undertaken.

Could this produce a new definition of PR? Quite possibly. This all suggests a dynamic, changing industry that is evolving, developing and challenging and that is also one of its attractions.

There is keen debate surrounding the relationship between advertising, marketing and PR. Students looking at PR for the first time sometimes struggle to distinguish between advertising and PR. It is not too long since the latter was seen as the poor relation of advertising but that is changing, for example, when it comes to brand reputation PR matters more than advertising. There is value in a brand’s reputation – well-known brand names such as Heinz have a tradable value and when a brand’s reputation suffers the company finances also suffer. Chapter 4 analyses reputation management and the direct financial link between a company’s poor reputation and their finances in more detail.

According to research by Context Analytics (2009) PR is more important than advertising for maintaining a brand’s value. The research states that on average 27% of brand value is tied to how often the brand name appears in the press, while in some sectors where more research is required before purchases are made PR can account for nearly half of the brand value. For example, with computers media prominence accounts for 47% of brand value.

Ethics in PR was rarely mentioned in early textbooks, however ethical considerations and questions are now playing a growing role in PR practice reflecting the growing significance and impact that PR has. PR theory has drawn heavily on the work of Grunig and others in order to develop what has become known as the excellence theory. The reason for this is not necessarily because we believe it represents the best or only model, indeed far from it, rather it is because it is still the most dominant theory in US and UK thinking. This will doubtless change and one of the more interesting aspects will be to see in what way PR’s international growth will encourage the flowering of different theories.

Those coming to PR for the first time will find an incredibly dynamic, fast-moving industry that is full of challenges and opportunities and looking for new talented people to make their mark. That is one of the attractions for those who want to work in PR – the fact that they have the chance to make a splash – and who knows, it could be you!

2

THE ORIGINS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

By the end of this chapter you will:

• appreciate why there are problems with defining PR
• have a clearer understanding of why the history and theory of PR matter
• understand the current dominant theory and the main theoretical origins of PR, as well as see how and why PR theory relates to PR practice

INTRODUCTION

This chapter looks at the relationship between the history and theory of PR and the way that PR history has influenced the development of PR theory. It is important for PR practitioners to have an understanding of theory because it can, among other things, help them to understand why some campaigns succeed and others do not.

PR theory is drawn from different but related strands of thought – firstly communication theory, and secondly the analysis of how PR has been practised in the past – and together they have produced a distinctive PR theory. Communication theory is the study of the transmission of information and the methods by which information is delivered: it is a huge subject in its own right, encompassing many different schools of thought. For the purposes of this book, we will look at those areas of communication theory that are most relevant to PR, for example, the study of the processes of communication from sender to receiver. From PR theory, we will go on to examine in detail the excellence theory, developed by American academic James Grunig. This theory is currently the most influential and although it has many critics it is still worthwhile to look at it and understand how it emerged, why it is significant, and why it is criticised.

PR: ONE OR MANY DEFINITIONS?

There are some books, mostly hostile to PR (and also the occasional first student essay on PR), that will start with almost gleeful opening lines: ‘It’s very difficult to define public relations’ or ‘There are many definitions of public relations and each one is as relevant as the other’. Critics of PR will then seize on this apparent lack of agreement about a definition as proof that PR is fundamentally flawed. They will argue that a definition cannot be provided because there is nothing of substance to PR: it is an illusion, all spin and floss. On the other hand, how can there be any confusion about what it stands for when we all know what PR is – namely getting publicity for your client or company in the media? One of the aims of this book is to demonstrate that PR has a lot more to it than this and that it now stands at the very centre of modern day communications.

The American academic Rex Harlow produced what he claimed to be the first all-inclusive definition of PR. His research identified 472 definitions that had been produced, from the early 1900s when modern PR emerged, to 1976 when he was working. He put together their common elements to produce the first global definition:

Public Relations is the distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and co-operation between an organisation and its publics; involves the management of problems and issues; helps management to keep informed on and responsive to public opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public interest; helps management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change, serving as an early warning system to help anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical communication as its principal tools. (Harlow, 1976: 36)

Critics of Harlow have said that precisely because this definition tries to cover everything, it becomes too detailed and is therefore useless. There are also many who would argue that it is not possible to provide a definition for a profession that covers such diverse practices, ranging from the campaigning activities of Greenpeace to getting coverage for an out-of-favour actor in the tabloids.

In 1978, at its first meeting in Mexico, the World Assembly of Public Relations agreed upon a definition that became known as ‘The Mexico Definition’. This was significant because it was the first time that various national organisations had agreed on one that they could all accept:

Public Relations is the art and social science of analysing trends, predicting their consequences, counselling organisation leaders and implementing planned programmes of action which will serve both the organisation’s and the public interest. (Warnaby & Moss, 2002: 7)

The key element in this was the attempt to enhance PR’s credibility by linking it with social science and suggesting that there was a scientific, objective, and therefore factual basis for it. In contrast to these somewhat lengthy definitions theorists have also made their contributions to the definition game. James Grunig and Todd Hunt produced this more focused definition: PR is ‘The management of communications between an organization and its publics (Grunig and Hunt, 1984: 8).

Cutlip, Center and Broom (2000: 6), who produced one of the first books summarising PR theory and practice, defined PR as follows: ‘Public Relations is the management function that identifies, establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organisation and various publics on whom its success or failure depends’. The key link between these two definitions is that it embeds PR as part of an organisation’s management, which gives it clout and credibility and lifts it away from the mechanical process of merely supporting a company’s sales (see below).

In the UK, the Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR) offers a definition that introduces another new dimension:

Public relations is about reputation – the result of what you do, what you say and what others say about you. Public relations practice is the discipline, which looks after reputation – with the aim of earning understanding and support and influencing opinion and behaviour. It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics. (www.cipr.co.uk)

This new element equates PR with reputation management. While this might seem reasonable, as we shall see below, there are many who would criticise the idea that PR is ‘about’ reputation management (for a detailed exploration of this argument, see Chapter 4). Interestingly, the above CIPR definition evolved from an earlier one. These evolving definitions illustrate the dynamism of PR and show how the industry has had to adapt to changing circumstances.

Another definition with a different emphasis is offered by the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA):

Public Relations helps an organisation and its publics to adapt mutually to each other. Public Relations is an organisation’s efforts to win the co-operation of groups of people. Public Relations helps organisations effectively interact and communicate with their key publics. (www.prsa.org)

WHERE PR comes from and why history matters

When did PR start? Who was the first PR person? Does it matter if you don’t know where PR came from? Will knowing its history make you better at your job or enhance your effectiveness as a PR practitioner? The history of PR matters because it has been used by theorists to explain how PR is practised and to produce theories. Practice develops theory and theory helps develop practice, so theory and practice are however linked thereby.

There are those together who want to give PR a very long history because in so doing they believe it enhances its credibility. For example, according to Cutlip et al. (2000: 102):

The communication of information to influence viewpoints or actions can be traced from the earliest civilisations. Archaeologists found a farm bulletin in Iraq that told the farmers of 1800 BC how to sow their crops, how to irrigate. Public relations was used many centuries ago in England, where King’s maintained Lord Chancellors as ‘Keepers of the King’s Conscience.’

The Boston Tea Party, which helped start the American War of Independence, is another example of a PR event that any modern PR company would be proud of because of the publicity it generated. We must remember that these ‘PR-like’ events (Grunig and Hunt, 1984) were not carried out with the intention of producing publicity. The motives of those who carried out these actions were totally different to those of a 21st century PR planner, and while it might appear to be a bit of harmless fun to describe the Boston Tea Party as a ‘PR event’ there is a serious element to such interpretations. In viewing these events as early PR events we are placing our values and viewpoints on the past when in fact they might have had a completely different meaning in that time and place. The past can only be understood by understanding historical events in their specific cultural context.

One of the problems with the study of PR history is that there is no single history of its development worldwide, instead there are a number of different and unrelated public relations histories (Pearson, 1992). The majority of the research about the history and development of PR has been conducted in the USA and this has been for a number of reasons. Firstly, the USA has the largest PR industry in the world and many of its consultancies have played a role in developing PR practice and ‘exporting’ it abroad. Secondly, the USA has a long established community of PR academics who have been able to carry out more research. However, there is a problem in simply relying on a history that is so focused on one country. This could lead to the belief that PR can only be practised in one way and with one set of values and ignore the contribution made to PR practice by other countries, cultures and traditions.

Academics are now beginning to look at the history of PR practice elsewhere. L’Etang and Pieczka (2006) include chapters on German and Swedish PR and L’Etang (2004) has also written a valuable history of PR in the UK, which highlights the different origins for PR there from those of the USA. Zerfass, van Ruler and Siramesh (2008) have produced an important book on European PR history and theory. Having said that we do need to know about how PR developed in the USA because the key PR academics James Grunig and Todd Hunt drew on that history in order to develop their influential four models of PR and also what has become known as the excellence theory.

The early years: Ivy Lee and Edw...