Seven Questions about Apprenticeships

OECD

• Publisher: OECD
• Year: 2018
• Topic: Social Sciences
• eBook ISBN:
  9789264307247
• Subtopic: Sociology
• Index: Social Sciences

Chapter 1. Can apprenticeships provide a useful contribution in every country?

This chapter explores the relevance of apprenticeship provision. It explores the universal benefits linked to the distinctive work-based character of apprenticeships, and finds considerable variation between countries in apprenticeship provision. The chapter identifies important elements that allow apprenticeships to work in the context of a given country, sector or occupation: the strength of social partnerships, the character of competition with alternative learning routes, and how entry to occupations is regulated. It also describes how apprenticeship schemes can be adapted to suit these different contexts. Finally, the chapter examines the costs and benefits of apprenticeships and how these can be adjusted to increase attractiveness to both employer and prospective apprentice, and how methodological tools enable such assessments to inform apprenticeship policy.

The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.

Issues and challenges

Apprenticeships have distinct advantages as a pathway to skills

Apprenticeships help connect provision in vocational education and training (VET) to labour market needs, as firms’ willingness to offer placements provides an important signal of employer need for a particular occupation. They also make use of the powerful learning environment offered in workplaces. Apprentices can learn from employees who are familiar with the latest working equipment and techniques. Soft skills are an important part of the skillset in many occupations, and these are best learnt in real workplaces rather than in classrooms or simulated work environments (OECD, 2010[1]). For learners, apprenticeships are an attractive form of learning as they enhance skills in real life settings and prepare them for jobs and careers.

There is wide variation across countries in the use of apprenticeships

In some countries, apprenticeships are a well-established route to skilled employment, whereas in others, apprenticeships are uncommon, with employers favouring other means of training and upskilling their employees. Figure 1.1 shows the differences in enrolment in apprenticeships that lead to upper secondary or short post-secondary qualifications.

Figure 1.1. There are large differences in the use of apprenticeships

Current apprentices in programmes leading to upper-secondary or short post-secondary qualifications as a share of all students enrolled in upper-secondary and short post-secondary education

Note: 16-25 year-olds pursuing a programme at ISCED 3 and ISCED 4C level.

Source: Kuczera, M. (2017[2]), “Striking the right balance: Costs and benefits of apprenticeship”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 153, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/995fff01-en.

StatLink http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933828372

The potential of apprenticeships is often underexploited for the jobs of the future

The popular image of an apprentice is often of working in a skilled trade or craft, such as construction or manufacturing. This accurately reflects the apprenticeship landscape in many countries, where apprenticeships are most common in manufacturing, construction and engineering. In the United States, for example, approximately 50% of apprentices are in the construction sector and 25% in military occupations (DOL, 2018[3]). One challenge is that the concentration of apprenticeships in skilled trade and craft occupations constrains apprenticeships to a small part of the labour market. In recent decades, OECD economies have seen a shift in employment away from manufacturing and towards services, which now account for over two-thirds of employment on average (OECD, 2017[4]). Limiting apprenticeships to “traditional sectors” means missing out on the potential benefits of apprenticeships in sectors where most of tomorrow’s jobs will be found.

Countries with large apprenticeship systems have expanded beyond trade and craft occupations. Australia now has more non-trade than trade apprenticeship starts. In Switzerland, the three most popular apprenticeship occupations are business and administration, wholesale and retail sales and building and civil engineering (Federal Statistics Office (FSO), 2018[5]). In Germany, the most popular apprenticeship occupations are in the management and retail sectors (BIBB, 2017[6]). In Austria, office, trade and finance is the second largest group of apprentice occupations, with nearly as many apprentices as the machine and metal sector (Wirtschaftskammer Österreich (WKO), 2018[7]). In the United Kingdom, it is possible to pursue an apprenticeship as a policy adviser in the civil service (GOV.UK, 2016[8]).

A focus on traditional trades limits work-based learning opportunities for women

Skilled trade and craft occupations are often perceived as traditionally “male” with limited female participation. As a result, women seeking a vocational qualification mostly pursue school-based programmes and do not benefit from the advantages of apprenticeship schemes. For example, in the United States only one in five apprentices are female (DOL, 2018[3]). In Ireland, apprenticeships were similarly construction dominated until recent reforms. In 2004, women accounted for less than 1% of new apprentices, but three-quarters of those pursuing school-based VET (Watson, McCoy and Gorby, 2006[9]). One way of addressing the gender imbalance that emerges in such “traditional” apprenticeships is to encourage women to enter traditionally male occupations. Several countries have implemented tools to encourage this, but large differences persist in the occupational choices of men and women. This suggests that addressing the gender imbalance also requires the creation of apprenticeship programmes in fields that tend to attract many female applicants.

International experience shows that apprenticeships can be introduced in non-traditional fields

In recent decades, many countries have sought to diversify the sectoral coverage of apprenticeships in recognition of the potential of apprenticeships as a pathway to a wider range of skilled jobs. Australia introduced non-trade apprenticeships1 in the 1980s, and these now outnumber trade apprenticeships (Hargreaves, Stanwick and Skujins, 2017[10]). In England (United Kingdom) and Ireland, apprenticeships used to be mostly in traditional trade fields, but service sector apprenticeships have grown strongly in England (United Kingdom) since the 1990s (Lanning, 2011[11]), and Ireland introduced programmes in service and business areas following the economic crisis (Condon and Mcnaboe, 2016[12]).

There are many ways of organising apprenticeships

Apprenticeship models, defined in law through agreements with employers and sometimes labour representatives and embedded in custom, differ across countries. For example, how on-th...

Table of contents

• Title page
• Legal and rights
• Foreword
• Acknowledgements
• Executive summary
• Overview: Making apprenticeships work
• Chapter 1. Can apprenticeships provide a useful contribution in every country?
• Chapter 2. Should employers receive financial incentives to provide apprenticeships?
• Chapter 3. What is the right wage for apprentices?
• Chapter 4. How long should an apprenticeship last?
• Chapter 5. How to ensure a good learning experience at work?
• Chapter 6. How to make apprenticeships work for youth at risk?
• Chapter 7. How to attract potential apprentices?
• Annex A. Apprentices and apprenticeship gwraduates in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)
• About the OECD