Dress and Ideology

Fashioning Identity from Antiquity to the Present

Shoshana-Rose Marzel, Guy D. Stiebel, Shoshana-Rose Marzel, Guy D. Stiebel

• Publisher: Bloomsbury Academic
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN:
  9781472529343
• Edition: 1
• eBook ISBN:
  9781472558091
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: World History
• Index: History

Dress and fashion are powerful visual means of communicating ideology, whether political, social or religious. From the communist values of equality, simplicity and solidarity exemplified in the Mao suit to the myriad of fashion protests of feminists such as French revolutionary women's demand to wear trousers, dress can symbolize ideological orthodoxy as well as revolt.

With contributions from a wide range of international scholars, this book presents the first scholarly analysis of dress and ideology through accessible case studies. Chapters are organized thematically and explore dress in relation to topics including nation, identity, religion, politics and utopias, across an impressive chronological reach from antiquity to the present day.

Dress & Ideology will appeal to students and scholars of fashion, history, sociology, cultural studies, politics and gender studies.

PART ONE

NATIONHOOD

1

SECULAR FASHION IN ISRAEL

OZ ALMOG

Pioneers vs. city dwellers

In national images depicting the early years of the State of Israel, the word “fashion” is deliberately associated with the unkempt pioneering sabra look: khaki shorts and blue shirts characteristic of the socialist youth movements, pinafores and rubashka shirts influenced by Eastern European style, Bedouin kaffiyahs, biblical sandals, and dome-shaped caps known as kova tembel. To a large extent, this look became Israel’s national mode of dress, part of the mythological image created before the establishment of the state and continuing into its early years.1

Yet, in the introduction to Changing Styles: 100 Years of Fashion in Eretz-Israel, Ayala Raz’s book (1996) on the history of fashion in Israel, the author notes that

most of the Jewish population of pre-state Israel did not make do with blue shirts or even pinafores but rather wore clothes modeled after Paris fashions to the extent possible under the circumstances. The pioneers, whose shirts and worn-out shoes left an unforgotten impression on history, were a minority. While it is true that many appeared in public dressed in khaki and short pants during the period of austerity and rationing marking the state’s early years, many others were seen dressed in tailored suits and fancy dresses in the latest styles.2

This discrepancy between the mythological sabra image and the way people actually dressed can be attributed to a number of factors. The first is the influence of the British Mandate government. The British meticulous style of dress may have had some impact on Jewish society. Secondly, most of the Jewish residents during the pre-state period lived in cities and therefore adopted urban rather than rural dress. Thirdly, most of the Jewish residents were European immigrants who brought with them patterns of dress and outward appearance from their countries of origin. Fourthly, many of the immigrants had worked in the clothing and fashion industry as tailors, leather workers, and milliners, or as owners of clothing stores or factories, and some tried to establish these businesses in their new country.

By the 1920s, Tel Aviv had already become the fashion capital of pre-state Israel. According to historian Yaacov Shavit, in 1931 Tel Aviv had no fewer than 17 textile factories, 16 small plants for embroidery and handicrafts, and 86 tailoring shops, serving a population of around 24,000.3

In Changing Styles Ayala Raz points out that

the numbers show that in the 1920s and 1930s the clothing industry in pre-state Israel developed at an unprecedented rate, apart from short periods of crisis. In 1918 there were 166 small clothing factories. By 1928 another 647 had opened, with the total number reaching 1083 by the end of 1936. More people were employed in clothing and textile factories than in all other industries.4

Perhaps in contrast to the prevailing pioneering image, from its inception the Hebrew press offered regular sections on film and theater, literature and poetry, plastic arts, and fashion innovations. The first fashion column in pre-state Israel appeared as early as 1904. It was written by Hemda Ben-Yehuda, wife of Eliezer Ben Yehuda, and published in his newspaper, Hashkafa. Over time, the volume of fashion articles in the Hebrew press increased, and in the 1930s and 1940s almost all the newspapers ran articles and even entire sections on this topic.5 Starting in 1941, professional fashion shows exhibiting readymade clothing held primarily in Tel Aviv attracted buyers from across the Middle East.

As more and more immigrant families became integrated into local life and as new generations of sabras joined the ranks of the local population, the trappings of European dress disappeared from the local scene and the proletarian–kibbutz style began dominating the Israeli fashion landscape. In the 1960s only a small minority comprising primarily older and more traditional men still sported felt homburg hats or Borsalino fedoras. Very few still wore vests or long chiffon dresses or stiffly starched shirts buttoned at the neck. Indeed, the local custom was to leave the top buttons unbuttoned. Ties also disappeared from the local fashion scene, and even the most prestigious officials, administrators, and state leaders avoided wearing ties, preferring open shirt collars even with suits or jackets.

The Ata takeover and products for everyone

The trend described above can be explained by the impact of the simple, straightforward, and frugal pioneering–sabra culture on the new immigrants. Other influencing factors include the hot Israeli climate, the water shortage, and the informal family atmosphere. The economic situation also prevented development of an opulent fashion culture modeled upon European trends.

In the 1950s, most apparel and footwear products were manufactured according to a uniform standard. Sale of these products was controlled by rationing through the Ministry of Rationing and Provision and by customs regulations put into effect to protect Israeli industry against competition with imported products. The textile factory that contributed more than any other factory to the Zionist fashion “standard” was the Ata plant. The factory was established on February 11, 1934 by Erich Moller, who was joined four years later by his cousin Hans. Both were Jewish immigrants whose family had owned prosperous textile factories in Czechoslovakia. The factory developed rapidly, and in its first year already had become the largest textile manufacturer in the Middle East. During the economic crisis in Europe prior to the outbreak of World War II, the factory’s owners began producing uniforms, mainly for the British army, as well as clothing for civilians.6 They were involved in all stages of production, from the threads through the finished products. Ata fabrics were sold in three main colors: khaki, blue, and white. In their simplicity they expressed the national pioneering/socialist ideology and the anti-Diaspora sabra values.

Ata’s products, originally made from poplin, drill, and satin, were mainly heavy khaki trousers, coarse blue shirts, white underwear and thick woolen socks, and the popular kova tembel.7 These items became the fashion trademark of Israel’s working population, and indeed of the entire Zionist enterprise. Even the leader of the new nation, David Ben Gurion, often appeared in public dressed in khaki in an attempt to express identification with the Zionist enterprise and its ethos of sacrifice and simplicity—in short, leadership that spurned arrogance and was close to the people.

Meticulous care for one’s outer appearance, like other refinements, was not a strong point of Zionist Israeli culture. It was a small, poor, anti-aristocratic, and partisan society lacking in codes and traditions of material beauty. This approach also dominated the period of austerity (Tzena), during which most apparel and footwear were manufactured in standardized and low-priced styles known as “products for everyone” (Totzeret Lakol).

Appearance gains in importance

Starting in the mid-1950s, the textile and leather industries began to develop rapidly. According to the government yearbooks, in 1956 Israel had around 1,150 textile factories that employed 12,000 people and manufactured clothing, coats, socks, hats, and other apparel items in thousands of different models. That same year, there were no fewer than 350 shoe factories, around 20 shoe salons, 100 workshops manufacturing shoes by hand, and 2,000 shoemakers; 1956 was also the first year in which crepe soles and synthetic heels were produced, initiating a revolution in the shoe industry.

Preoccupation with outward appearance was found mainly among the affluent population of the larger cities. In fact, there was a small province of glamour and fashion consciousness in Tel Aviv. During the austerity period Lola Bar was considered the most outstanding fashion designer for society women and designed formal attire for the wives of several national leaders. In 1950 Miriam Yaron was crowned Miss Israel, the nation’s first beauty queen, in a contest that was to become an annual event. La’Isha journal, the beauty pageant’s sponsor, was the most important player on the Israeli fashion scene.

Maskit, Israel’s first fashion house, was founded in 1954. The company’s products were produced by artisans from the mass waves of immigrants. Maskit had three objectives: to provide employment and a livelihood for the immigrants, to preserve material and cultural traditions of the immigrants, and to show Israeli society that the immigrants from Arabic-speaking countries were not deprived but rather people with a rich cultural and aesthetic heritage. Ruth Dayan, wife of Moshe Dayan, was Maskit’s founder, leader, and guiding spirit.8 Dayan hired Finy Leitersdorf, a Hungarian-born fashion designer, as Maskit’s head designer. Her spouse, artist Yohanan Simon, also designed prints for the company’s fabrics. Combining the artists’ authentic contributions with her classic/cosmopolitan education, Leitersdorf put together an original style that merged biblical themes, the ingathering of the exiles, and the special lighting and landscapes...

Table of contents

• Title
• Contents 
• Authors
• List of illustrations
• Introduction, Shoshana-Rose Marzel, Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design Jerusalem, Israel
• PART ONE NATIONHOOD
• 1 Secular Fashion in Israel, Oz Almog, University of Haifa, Israel
• 2 Sartorial Boundaries on the Chinese Frontier, Antonia Finnane, University of Melbourne, Australia
• PART TWO RELIGION
• 3 Rabbinical Dress in Italy, Asher Salah, Bezalel Arts and Design Academy Jerusalem, Israel
• 4 Zoomorphic Brooches in Roman Britain: Decoration or Religious Ideology?, Lindsay Allason-Jones, Newcastle University, UK
• 5 How Muslim Women Dress in Israel, Oz Almog, University of Haifa, Israel
• PART THREE IDENTITY
• 6 Ideology, Fashion and the Darlys’ “Macaroni” Prints, Peter McNeil, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
• 7 Feminist Ideologies in Postmodern Japanese Fashion: Rei Kawakubo Meets Marie Antoinette in Downtown Tokyo, Ory Bartal, Bezalel Arts and Design Academy Jerusalem, Israel
• 8 Military Dress as an Ideological Marker in Roman Palestine, Guy D. Stiebel, Tel Aviv University, Israel
• PART FOUR POLITICS
• 9 Fashion and Feminism, Henriette Dahan-Kalev, Ben Gurion University, Israel and Shoshana-Rose Marzel, Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design Jerusalem, Israel
• 10 Fashion Politics and Practice: Indian Cottons and Consumer Innovation in Tokugawa Japan and Early Modern England, c. 1600–1800, Beverly Lemire, University of Alberta, Canada
• 11 Breastfeeding, Ideology and Clothing in nineteenth-Century France, Gal Ventura, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
• 12 Dress as Political Ideology in Rabelais and Voltaire Utopias, Shoshana-Rose Marzel, Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design Jerusalem, Israel
• Index
• Copyright