Science and Christianity

Foundations and Frameworks for Moving Forward in Faith

Reddish

• Publisher: Wipf and Stock
• Year: 2016
• eBook ISBN: 9781498296052
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Religion

Too often conversations on Science and Christianity skate over much deeper assumptions--or perceptions--on the nature and interpretation of Scripture, and the nature of science and of God. Instead, the rhetoric goes quickly towards contentious issues, like evolution, global warming, or genetic engineering, without establishing a framework of mutual understanding. Consequently, "conversations" can take place between people who completely misunderstand each other because those foundations have not been clearly articulated. In this introductory book you are invited on a journey of discovery, one that makes us self-aware of our starting assumptions. It is only from a framework of critical engagement with both science and the Bible that contemporary issues and the needs of the church and society can be addressed.

Chapter 1

Science and Scripture

The Bible on Trial

But I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who has endowed us with senses, reason, and intellect has intended to forgo their use and by some other means to give us knowledge which we can attain by them. He would not require us to deny sense and reason in physical matters which are set before our eyes and minds by direct experience or necessary demonstrations. This must be especially true in those sciences of which but the faintest trace . . . is to be found in the Bible. —Galileo Galilei, Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615)

You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind, and with all your strength. —Mark 12:301

Introduction

February 1616, four hundred years ago, was a momentous month in the history of science and Christianity. It was then that Copernicus’s heliocentric view of the universe was condemned by the Roman Catholic Church as being a heretical teaching and in contradiction to Holy Scripture. Much has happened since then, of course, but it is both an appropriate and timely starting point, not least as many still hold the view that the Bible is in conflict with the findings of science.

The Trial of Galileo, as it is sometimes called, occurred in two distinct phases. In 1616, the heliocentric system itself was on trial, not Galileo. The second phase, in 1633, was far more personal. It sought to ascertain if Galileo had abided to the details and spirit of the 1616 injunction, and—if need be—to discipline him. Much has been written about “the Galileo affair,” and here is not the place to review it, suffice to say that this was about power, politics, patronage, popes, precedents, principles, polemics, and personalities. The issues were complex and nuanced—and need to be seen in their historical context. For instance, one wonders if the issue would have erupted as it did if a certain Martin Luther had not publicized his ninety-five theses a century beforehand. That challenge to the Roman Catholic Church’s authority resulted in the Counter-Reformation and the Council of Trent (1545–63)—highly relevant in defining the theological milieu of Galileo’s day, but more on that later. What I want to focus on here is the place of the Bible in the 1616 ruling, and how it was interpreted. To set the scene, it is worth remembering a few major developments in the previous centuries.

Improved farming practices, including the earlier development of the heavy plow, enabled huge increases in food productivity in Northern Europe. This, and other factors, helped support increasing urbanization and so transformed the social landscape. With cities came centers of learning, and by 1200 CE the great universities of Western Europe, such as Paris, Oxford, and Bologna, were founded by the church authorities and local rulers. Logic, mathematics, astronomy, natural philosophy, music, art, and law were all part of the academic syllabus, as well as—of course—theology.

During the eleventh and twelfth centuries there were many works of the Greek philosophers that were translated from Arabic into Latin in northern Spain and southern France. These ancient texts, along with commentaries on them, were preserved and enhanced by Islamic scholars. It was like the discovery of a long-lost treasure, and these works transformed the medieval period. Their contents were devoured by the new universities.2 Natural philosophy was greatly enhanced by these texts from antiquity, especially the works of Aristotle. By the end of the fifteenth century, the Renaissance was well under way.

During this period there was another significant invention: the printing press. This made the distribution of new information and ideas much more rapid. One of the first books printed was the Gutenberg Bible between 1450–56. Furthermore, in 1492 Columbus discovered the New World and in 1497, Vasco da Gamma rounded the Cape of Good Hope and so opened a trade route to India and the Far East. A new era of exploration and discovery had begun. These events fired the imagination of Europeans, and their mental horizons of time and space began to expand again. Dramatic developments emerged in all areas of human activity such as religion, art, music, and science.3

Having identified a few pertinent, historical highlights, and so set the scene, it is now necessary to outline the general way the Bible was interpreted at the time. This will be considered briefly in the next section, along with the then relationship between science—or natural philosophy—and theology.

Natural Philosophy and Biblical Interpretation

How was one to understand Aristotle’s view of the world with that given in Genesis? This requires the Bible to be interpreted and it is naive to think that biblical interpretation is somehow self-evident. McGrath states: “There is a sense in which the history of Christian theology can be regarded as the history of biblical interpretation.”4 An essential part of that long history is, therefore, addressing the question: “What were the accepted principles for biblical hermeneutics and exegesis, and how have they evolved?”5

The foundations of biblical interpretation began in the patristic period with different schools of thought emerging from the various Christian centers, such as Alexandria and Antioch. In addition to a literal interpretation, there emerged significant emphasis on allegorical interpretations, or hidden spiritual meanings, such as the Song of Songs corresponding to the love between Christ and his church. By the Middle Ages there was a standard method of biblical interpretation with four elements, namely: a literal sense of Scripture, in which the text was simply taken at face value, and three nonliteral approaches: allegorical (a mystical or metaphorical sense), tropological (a moral sense), and anagogical (a future sense). As we will see later, this elaborate characterization is an important element in the 1616 decree.

Returning to the patristics, given the importance of St. Augustine (354–430) it is worth quoting from his commentary on Genesis on the relationship between science, faith, and the Bible:

In matters that are so obscure and far beyond our vision, we find in Holy Scripture passages which can be interpreted in very different ways without prejudice to the faith we have received. In such cases, we should not rush in headlong and so firmly take our stand on one side that, if further progress in the search for truth justly undermines our position, we too fall with it. We should not battle for our own interpretation but for the teaching of the Holy Scripture. We should not wish to conform the meaning of Holy Scripture to our interpretation, but our interpretation to the meaning of Holy Scripture.6

Consequently, whatever can be reasonably established through natural philosophy—and, of course, Augustine was very aware of the works of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers—should not be an unnecessary source of contention in biblical interpretation or undermine or jeopardize the faith. Augustine therefore advocated the avoidance of intransigence in biblical interpretation on matters not central to the faith. Later, the influential Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) cites Augustine as teaching:

The first is, to hold the truth of Scripture without wavering. T...

Table of contents

• Title Page
• Acknowledgments
• Introduction
• Chapter 1: Science and Scripture
• Chapter 2: On the Inspiration and Interpretation of Scripture
• Chapter 3: On the Nature of Science
• Chapter 4: On Ways of Relating Science and Christianity
• Chapter 5: On Chance, Order, and Necessity
• Chapter 6: On the Nature of God
• Chapter 7: On Miracles and Prayer
• Chapter 8: Revisiting Science and Scripture
• Afterword
• Appendix 1: Traditional Theistic Arguments for the Existence of God
• Appendix 2: A Brief Excursion into Metaphysics
• Bibliography