Hebrews, the General Letters, and Revelation

An Introduction

Charles B. Puskas

• Publisher: Cascade Books
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9781498287777
• eBook ISBN: 9781498286398
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Religion

Most New Testament (NT) introductions, because of page limitations and other reasons, tend to minimize their treatment of the last nine books of the Christian Bible (from Hebrews to Revelation). The focus in these introductions is often on the four Gospels and the Letters of Paul. As important as these books are, one should not neglect, with only a brief survey, the treatment of Hebrews, the General Letters, and the book of Revelation. The title given later to the collection--Catholic Epistles or General Letters--is a reminder of its general appeal to the whole church, despite its slow "canonical" recognition and authorship issues. Nevertheless, these writings from Hebrews to Revelation continue to capture our attention and ignite our imagination. My purpose for this book is to supplement my NT introduction and others like it with a focus on specific questions about each book from Hebrews to Revelation: -When and why was each book written? -By whom and to whom was each book written? -What are some special features of each book? -How soon (or late) was each book included in the NT collection? Answers to many of these questions are tentative. The "assured results of scholarship" are in continual need of reevaluation. Since the 1980s a host of diverse studies have emerged, and I have endeavored to include them when they are relevant to the discussion.

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Hebrews

Introduction

It has become fashionable to characterize Hebrews by its own description of Melchizedek, “without father or mother or genealogy” (7:3), because there is so much doubt about who wrote it, who received it, and when.1 The early theologian Origen tersely summed up the authorship question with the statement: “only God knows who wrote this epistle.”2 Even the literary form is a mystery since it begins like a treatise, proceeds like a sermon, and closes like a letter. Let us now examine the following topics: genre, rhetorical structure, faith and worship contexts, authorship, place of composition, audience, destination, and date.3

The Genre4

As do John’s Gospel and 1 John, Hebrews opens with a majestic prose introduction of the divine Son of God (1:1–4).5 It proceeds with further expositions of doctrinal themes (in indirect discourse: 1:5–14; 2:5—3:6; 5:1–10; 7:1—10:18; 11:1–40; 12:18–24; 13:8,10–12), that are interchanged with practical exhortations (in direct discourse: 2:1–4; 3:7—4:16 [14:1–16 mixed]; 5:11—6:20; 10: 19–39; 12:1–17; 13:1–23 [13:7–21 mixed]). It then concludes as an early NT letter: paraenesis (exhortation and admonition, 13:1–19), closing prayer and doxology (vv. 20–21), postscript with a “personal” word (v. 22), brief travelogue (v. 23), final greeting (v. 24), and benediction (v. 25).6

Despite the likelihood that Hebrews was put into written form for circulation among the author’s readers (e.g., 13:12, “I have written to you”), the work lacks too many epistolary features to be classed as a letter. There is no letter opening, no sender identified, no addressee designated (the title “to the Hebrews” was no later than 200 CE), and the epistolary closing is a postscript.

Almost all ancient writings were intended to be read aloud;7 Hebrews is explicit on this point. It seems to be written as a spoken address, probably as a sermon or collection of sermons. First, the author seems to identify his document as a “word of exhortation” (paraklēsis, 13:22; cf. 6:18; 12:5). In Acts, a homily (or sermon) given in a synagogue after the reading of Scripture is identified as a “word of exhortation” (paraklēsis, Acts 13:15; cf. 15:31).8 See also the related usage of the Greek verb, parakaleō (Heb 3:13; 10:25; 13:19,22).9 Second, allusions to speaking and hearing in Hebrews support its oratorical nature. Here are examples: “about this matter we have much to say that is hard to explain since you have become dull of hearing” (5:11); “though we speak this” (6:9); “now the main point in what we are saying is this” (8:1; cf. 2:1,5; 9:5; 11:32). All these statements exemplify direct address between the speaker and his audience.

A third clue about the hortatory nature of Hebrews is that it contains many practical exhortations that are typical of early homilies by Judeans and Christ-followers (on my nomenclature, see pp. 19n30, 166, 169). In the Greek text they are distinctly marked by the use of the first-person-plural hortatory subjunctive, “let us” (4:1, 11, 14, 16; 6:1; 10:22, 23, 24; 12:1, 28; 13:13, 15). Also, these practical exhortations are combined with doctrinal expositions that are based on passages from the Hebrew Scriptures (e.g., Heb 2:1–9/Ps 8:4–6; Heb 3:7—4:3/Ps 95; Heb 7/Gen 14 and Ps 110; Heb 8/Jer 31:31–34).

The combinations in Hebrews of doctrinal exposition of Scripture (e.g., 1:5–14; 4:14—5:10; 8:1—10:18) with practical exhortation (2:1–4; 5:11—6:20; 10:19–25) is characteristic of early homilies by Judeans and Christ-followers in late antiquity. This practice occurs in a variety of Judean hortatory literature: e.g., T. 12 Patr.; the introduction to Wis 1–5; Tob 4; the opening exhortations in the Damascus Document of Qumran, CD 1–8. It is not characteristic only of the speeches in Acts (e.g., Acts 2:14–36; 3:12–26; 7:2–53; 10:34–43; 13:15–43; 17:22–31) but also of early homilies by Christ-followers (e.g., 1 Pet, 2 Clem., Letter to Diognetus 11–12).10

Therefore, because of the hortatory clues in the text, Hebrews should be classed with early sermons like 1 Peter, 2 Clement, Diognetus 11–12, and the kerygmatic speeches of Acts. There are five reasons for this classification. (1) All make use of the Israelite Scriptures to expound their doctrines. (2) Each combines doctrinal exposition derived from the Scriptures with practical exhortations. (3) Each has the deliberative rhetorical function to persuade or dissuade the listeners/readers.11 (4) All presuppose an oratorical setting (real or fictional) between the speaker and his audience.12 (5) All are concerned with the rhetorical effects of the message upon the intended audience.

The classification of Hebrews as an early sermon, however (e.g., 3:1—4:13; 8:1—10:18; 12:1–13), does not undervalue the diverse influences that produced this hortatory genre. The sections of biblical exposition have affinities with both rabbinic argumentation13 and the pesher exegesis of Qumran.14 Furthermore, Judean missionary propaganda (e.g., Philo, Sib. Or., Aristob.)15 and Hellenistic rhetoric (e.g., Aristotle, Cynic-Stoic dialogues) both may have influenced it. Finally, hymns and kerygma concerning Jesus, the Greek OT (e.g., Genesis, Deuteronomy, Pss 2; 8; 22; 110; Isaiah; Jer 31), and Near Eastern wisdom traditions also determined the hortatory genre among Christ-followers.

Figure 1: Papyrus 12, Hebrews 1:1 (third century)

The Rhetorical Function

Now that Hebrews has been identified as a NT homily, we will consider its rhetorical function. The use of rhetoric and its intended effect on the audience were important concerns in homilies and speeches. What type of rhetoric was employed? Although much of the doctrinal sections of Hebrews contain encomia, praising Christ or the virtues of famous people, the exhortations give it a deliberative function: to persuade its readers in the faith and dissuade them from unacceptable views and practices.16 As 1 Cor 7–8 and 2 Cor 8–9 do, so Hebrews focuses on expedient courses of action for the future, although praiseworthy virtues in the present (encomium) are included. The types of rhetoric employed in Hebrews will be helpful in determining its function and purpose, as well as its structure. In my outline of the rhetorical structure,17 attention will be given to both the doctrinal prose sections and the hortatory discourses (which often overlap).

Related to paraenetic (hortatory) language, but perhaps more forceful or intentional, is protreptic rhetoric, promoting a particular course of action (Gk. protreptein, “to urge, impel”). In a speech attributed to the Stoic Epictetus (first–second century CE), he contrasts it with those who would flatter people rather than to recommend for them the right way to live (Arrian, Epict. Diss. 3.23). A good Cynic is to teach and live by those sober realities of life (Dio Chrysostom...

Table of contents

• Title Page
• Credit Lines for Figures
• Abbreviations
• Preface
• Introduction
• Chapter 1: Hebrews
• Chapter 2: The Letter of James
• Chapter 3: The First Letter of Peter
• Chapter 4: Jude and 2 Peter
• Chapter 5: The Letters of John
• Chapter 6: The Book of Revelation
• Glossary
• Bibliography