Mubarak Al-Sabah

The Foundation of Kuwait

Souad M. Al-Sabah, Laila Asser, John King, Laila Asser, John King

• Publisher: I.B. Tauris
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9781780764542
• eBook ISBN: 9781786725004
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Middle Eastern History
• Index: History

Amidst political upheaval and the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the State of Kuwait emerged as an independent country under British protection in 1899, with Sheikh Mubarak Al Sabah widely accredited as the instrument of its foundation. But the path to power for Mubarak was not a simple or smooth one. The author here presents an original perspective on the difficulties and controversies surrounding Mubarak's ascension. With unparalleled insights and access to original sources she reveals the life, personality and politics of a man who, determined to secure a distinctive Kuwaiti state, helped to shape the modern Middle East. This biography provides a comprehensive overview of a time of significant political and social change in the Gulf when development, diplomacy, economics, finance and trade were both routes to political independence and the perpetuation of British domination. Remembered for his unyielding determination to boost the profile and wealth of Kuwait and establish his leadership at a turbulent time of regional war, Mubarak engineered major change for Kuwait.
From the negotiations of the 1899 Anglo-Kuwait Agreement, during which Mubarak sought to outfox Lord Curzon and other British officials, to his ambitions to tame tribal politics, the author here presents a unique portrait of the man who transformed Kuwait from an Ottoman sub-province to an independent state.

1

Making a State

He was the maker of modern Kuwait, a man of long vision and great ability [whose] influence extended far out into the desert.¹

From the memoirs of Dr Stanley Mylrea, who came to Kuwait in 1911

There are two kinds of leader: one makes history, while the other is overwhelmed by it. A ruler of the first kind views the environment in which he finds himself as a challenge and seeks to mould it to suit his dreams and ambitions. For the second kind of leader, his circumstances constitute an unavoidable fate from which he cannot escape. He therefore surrenders to it and accepts things as they are, to his inevitable detriment. There is no doubt that Sheikh Mubarak, who reigned in Kuwait from 1896 to 1915, was a ruler of the first kind. He was obliged to cope with a situation of great complexity, where Kuwait’s internal situation interacted with the regional circumstances of the Gulf and with the policies and long-term plans of the major European powers. Internally, as will become clear in this chapter, Sheikh Yusuf Al-Ibrahim, an implacable enemy of Sheikh Mubarak who was related by marriage to Mubarak’s predecessor, Sheikh Muhammad, sought for as long as he was able to dislodge Mubarak from power. In this, he attempted to enlist the support of regional parties such as the Al-Rashid in Arabia, the ruler of Qatar and certain Ottoman officials. The region was, at the time, the scene of a struggle between the Al-Saud and the Al-Rashid for power in Najd, and control over the remainder of Arabia. At the same time it also witnessed repeated attempts by the Ottoman Empire to re-establish its authority and reaffirm its influence over the Arab sheikhdoms of the Gulf.

At the close of the nineteenth century, this Ottoman ambition found itself in opposition to the increasing power of Britain in the Gulf, in both political and military terms. The confrontation culminated with the installation by Britain of a number of protectorate agreements with the sheikhs of the Arab Emirates. While the Anglo-Ottoman conflict was the primary axis of political interaction in the Gulf during this period, the struggle was also influenced by the rivalry among other European powers in the region, with Germany, Russia and France each growing more adventurous. The number of different parties involved, together with the diversity of their interests, led to a complex series of conflicts and rivalries on the one hand, and to a variety of alliances and friendships on the other. The parameters of these conflicts fluctuated, with roles and positions evolving according to the varying interests of the parties over time.

Sheikh Mubarak was obliged to steer Kuwait through troubled waters, as the situation constantly evolved. He had to calibrate carefully his relationship with all parties so as to serve the interests of his country. First, there was the primary issue of his relationship with the Ottoman Empire. He opted to maintain his formal link with the Empire, in part at least because it was identified with the Islamic caliphate. He utilized this relationship astutely to safeguard Kuwaiti interests, including the protection of the property of the Al-Sabah family in the Faw area, and the security of Kuwaiti merchant shipping in those Gulf ports that were still controlled by the Ottoman authorities. He was ready to allow this connection to persist for as long as Istanbul refrained from interference in Kuwait’s internal politics and affairs. However, he consistently refused to receive any official Ottoman representative in Kuwait. Second, his relationship with Britain was increasingly important and he entered into a close relationship with the British Government, which was the strongest and most influential power in the Gulf. His objective here was to protect his country from being sucked into the quicksand of potential Ottoman interference in its internal affairs. Third, however, he developed an awareness of other European powers that potentially represented a danger to Kuwait but might also have benefits to bring. He received representatives of the major European powers and listened to what they had to offer. At the same time, he was always careful to let the British authorities know about such contacts. In part this was a way of signalling to the British that he was not a prisoner of British diplomacy, and that he had alternatives to which he could turn when necessary. Briton Cooper Busch, a historian of the Gulf, pays tribute to the Sheikh’s mastery of diplomacy.²

Sheikh Mubarak's early years

Sheikh Mubarak was born in 1844. He was a son of Sheikh Al-Sabah and succeeded his elder brother Sheikh Muhammad to the throne in unclear circumstances. At the age of five, his grandfather, Sheikh Jaber, took charge of his education. Sheikh Jaber appointed a religious scholar to teach the young Mubarak the principles of the Qur’an and religious sciences. At the age of 12, he began his education in shooting and riding. Within two years he had completed his training in horsemanship and had surpassed his peers and friends. As an adult, he became one of Kuwait’s most accomplished horsemen, and as a marksman he rarely missed his target. He also began at an early age to attend government meetings. In his younger days, before he took power, he spent much of his time participating in military expeditions in the desert and became an expert in military arts and strategy. In 1871, for example, when he was still only 27, his eldest brother, Sheikh Abdullah Al-Sabah, who had succeeded as Sheikh of Kuwait in 1866, appointed him to lead the Kuwaiti contingent that assisted the Ottoman forces in the Al-Hasa campaign led by Nafidh Pasha. Sheikh Abdullah himself headed the naval campaign, designating Mubarak to lead the land forces. In 1871, he met the Ottoman Governor of Baghdad, Midhat Pasha. It was at this time, in appreciation of Kuwait’s role in the Al-Hasa campaign, that Midhat Pasha granted the ruler of Kuwait ownership of an area of palm groves in the Shatt Al-Arab region, with perpetual tax exemption.

In 1892, Sheikh Muhammad Al-Sabah, another of Mubarak’s older brothers, succeeded to the leadership of Kuwait, after which he sent Sheikh Mubarak to head a number of desert campaigns. Sheikh Mubarak’s first task was to lead a punitive campaign against Majid Al-Duwaysh, one of the leaders of the Mutayr tribe, who had been attempting to seize the property of tribes who were favourable to Kuwait. Later the same year, he led a force sent by Sheikh Muhammad to support Ibn Suwayt, the head of the Al-Dhufayr tribe, against a rebel leader from the same tribe. In 1893, he led a Kuwaiti detachment sent to support Ottoman troops in Qatar. He also led campaigns ordered by Sheikh Muhammad against the Al-Sa’id, who had attacked various tribes attached to Kuwait. Mubarak pursued the Al-Sa’id and confronted them in the Al-Khanqa area, where he defeated them and recovered property they had stolen. In 1894, Sheikh Mubarak led the force sent by the Sheikh of Kuwait against the Bani Hajar tribe, who had raided Kuwaiti boats in the Gulf and stolen their cargo. He confronted the Bani Hajar at a location between Al-Qatif and Al-Hasa, where he overcame them and retrieved the booty they had stolen. In most of these battles, the standard-bearer was Abdullah bin Muhammad Al-Mizyan. His son, Ibrahim, shared this duty with him and continued after his father’s death.³ Mubarak derived great benefit from the part he played in these battles. He learned the art of desert warfare, forged close relationships with the heads of the Bedouin tribes and enhanced his personal standing through his leadership of the Kuwaiti forces.

Contemporaries describe Mubarak as tall and tanned, with dark eyes, commenting that he was a sure-footed man with a firm stride, who was strong but slender. As to his abilities, Hafez Wahbah describes him as having ‘a long memory and a strong will’.⁴ Hussein Khalaf Al-Sheikh Khaz‘al remarks that he had a scar on his forehead from a sword, which made him appear even more fear-some, adding that,

he was intelligent and sensitive and was highly energetic. He thought deeply but spoke little. He had a long memory and never forgot a face, no matter how much time had passed.⁵

Abd Al-Massih Antaki, the owner of the Egyptian magazine Al-Imran, who met Sheikh Mubarak in 1907, described him as,

tall, slender, with muscular arms, dark hair and attractive black eyes, which radiated intelligence and resourcefulness. His beard was short and sparse. He has a good memory, remembering all the events he has experienced or heard of. If anyone mentions an event in front of him, he immediately corrects any error and will then recount the story in minute detail.⁶

Mubarak’s grounding in the traditions of the desert tribes had inculcated in him a love for the land and a strong will. Each time Sheikh Muhammad sent him to the desert, his task was to impose order among tribesmen who were accustomed to freedom from constraint and rejected the interference of any outside authority. Mubarak carried out his orders, though the necessary financial support was often only grudgingly provided. This commission was both a testing and a useful experience for Mubarak, during which he cultivated strong relationships with certain tribes, including the Ajman and Al-Rashaydeh. This led to lasting attachments of loyalty between him and the tribes. When he came to power, he was proud to describe himself as the sheikh of Kuwait’s tribes, and he was able to take advantage of his strong links with the tribesmen to establish a military force capable of defending Kuwait, deterring its enemies and supporting its friends.

In power, Mubarak’s guiding principle was in the first place to consolidate his authority, although he was beset by a morass of conflicts and conspiracies. He took pains to construct a formidable military force for Kuwait, taking advantage of the international rivalry between the major powers and the Ottomans to protect the independence of his country. He was the first to define Kuwait as a nation, raising the first national flag carrying the name of ‘Kuwait’ and demarcating the geographical borders of the emirate.

Consolidating the state

Mubarak came to power in difficult circumstances, amidst a series of testing political and military events that culminated in the deaths in obscure circumstances of his brothers, Muhammad and Jarrah. In this context, the early years of his reign were marked by a sequence of political disturbances and military clashes, including attempts from Kuwait to drive him from power.

The internal conflict in Kuwait was influenced by regional and international considerations. On the international front, there were constant attempts by the Ottomans to intervene in the affairs of the nation in order to counter the growing influence of Europe. Meanwhile, European activities reflected the rivalry between Britain, France, Russia and Germany. A further factor was the regional struggle in Arabia, and in particular that between the Al-Saud and the Al-Rashid for control of Najd and Al-Hasa. Amidst all these external pressures, Mubarak strove to bring into play all the diplomatic and military resources he could muster to strengthen the basis of his authority in Kuwait.

At the heart of his troubles was his quarrel with his brothers Muhammad and Jarrah. The conflict continued even after their deaths, as Mubarak’s implacable adversary Yusuf Al-Ibrahim gave sanctuary to their sons. Yusuf Al-Ibrahim, also known as the Sheikh of Dora, was one of the wealthiest pearl merchants in Kuwait; he was related to the Al-Sabah by marriage and had enjoyed great influence during the reign of Sheikh Muhammad. His constant goal was to undermine Mubarak’s rule. He allied himself with certain Ottoman officials as well as with the Al-Rashid. Yusuf Al-Ibrahim’s antagonism was a major factor in Kuwaiti–Ottoman relations during the first years of Mubarak’s reign, and it came to an end only with his death, on 25 January 1906.

Yusuf Al-Ibrahim attempted to recruit the support of Hamdi Pasha, the Governor of Basra, for his campaign against Sheikh Mubarak, bringing to bear all the diplomatic wiles he had at his disposal. In his relations with the Ottomans he took care to convey the impression that Mubarak was a supporter of the British while claiming that he himself, once in power, would restore Ottoman control over Kuwait. At the same time, in a letter he sent to the British Consul in Basra and to the British Resident in Bushire, he promised the British that he would request Briti...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title page
• Copyright
• Table of Contents
• List of Plates
• Preface
• Introduction
• 1. Making a State
• 2. The Building of a Nation
• 3. Social Development and the Outside World
• 4. Economic Development
• 5. Regional Relations and the Employment of Political Resources
• 6. The International Struggle for Kuwait
• Conclusion
• Notes
• Bibliography