Evolving Iran

An Introduction to Politics and Problems in the Islamic Republic

Barbara Ann Rieffer-Flanagan

• Publisher: Georgetown University Press
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9781589019782
• eBook ISBN: 9781589019799
• Topic: Politics & International Relations
• Subtopic: International Relations
• Index: Politics & International Relations

Evolving Iran presents an overview of how the politics and policy decisions in the Islamic Republic of Iran have developed since the 1979 revolution and how they are likely to evolve in the near future. Despite the fact that the revolution ushered in a theocracy, its political system has largely tended to prioritize self-interest and pragmatism over theology and religious values, while continuing to reinvent itself in the face of internal and international threats.

The author also examines the prospects for democratization in Iran. Since the early years of the twentieth century, Iranians have attempted to make their political system more democratic, yet various attempts to produce a system where citizens have a meaningful voice in political decisions have failed. This book argues that greater democratization is unlikely to occur in the short term, especially in light of increased threats from the international community.

This accessible overview of Iran’s political system covers a broad array of subjects, including foreign policy, human rights, women’s struggle for equality, the development and evolution of elections, and the institutions of the political system including the Revolutionary Guards and Assembly of Experts. It will appeal to undergraduates and the general public who seek to understand a country and regime that has mystified Westerners for decades.

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
The Incomplete Revolution

The June 2009 presidential elections were a significant event in Iranian politics. These elections offered Iran’s political system the opportunity to take another step along a democratic path. The presidential election pitted President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad against a rather uncharismatic former prime minister, Mir-Hossein Mousavi. However, instead of democratic images of people voting, Iranians and observers around the world were left with the image of a young woman in blue jeans.

On June 20, 2009, Neda Agha Soltan walked to a demonstration in Tehran. Many protesters, frustrated with the election results and their lack of political influence, took to the streets after Ahmadinejad was declared the winner. As Neda walked along Kargar Avenue, she was shot by Abbas Kargar Javid, a man associated with the Basijis—a progovernment militia.¹ The video footage captured international attention for the graphic depiction of her death—blood streamed from her nose and chest as she lay dying on an ordinary street in Tehran. The image also captured the brutality of the regime and the numerous human rights violations that the theocratic regime has committed.

This horrific event, captured for all the world to see, offered a number of lessons for all those who were watching. First, it reminded us of the way the regime deals with perceived threats. Neda’s senseless death was one of many as the regime crushed a potential political threat in the Green Movement. When the theocratic regime feels threatened, it has often responded in a ruthless manner. Second, demonstrators such as Neda face an uphill battle in their ongoing struggle for democracy. The riots, clashes, and show trials that unfolded in the subsequent months demonstrated the regime’s willingness to give up any pretense at being a democracy.² Third, and last, it is worth noting that the regime did not justify its use of force with religious references or Islamic tenets.

Themes of This Book

Iran’s political system is complex and multifaceted. This book offers an overview of political issues and problems in the Islamic Republic of Iran. It begins with the basic question: How are policy decisions made? To understand the economic situation in Iran, or the human rights violations that exist, one must understand what values guide policymaking and how these decisions affect the policies pursued in Iran.

In Iran one sees that religion is important to politics and is nominally the foundation of the political system. This poses challenges for many in the West who seek to understand how the Iranian political system functions with direct religious influence. When does Shia Islam most strongly influence politics? When do religious tenets take a backseat to the self-interest of political elites? This book is intended to help readers understand how specific religious ideas and themes influence this polity and when they have taken a backseat to other concerns.

Despite the fact that the Islamic Revolution of 1979 ushered in a theocracy, Shia theology did not guide many policies. One goal of this work is to demonstrate a tendency toward pragmatic decision making over religious or ideological beliefs based on a radical form of Islam. A strongly conservative interpretation of Islam has not determined many of the policies in Iran. Since the Revolution, there have been many instances when self-interest and pragmatism have taken precedence over theology and religious values. Thus the reader will see how the regime in Tehran has evolved during the last few decades, and how it has at times evolved in a more pragmatic direction.

A second focus of this book is threats. The evolution of Iran’s political and social landscape may be slow, but during the last few decades we have seen significant change. This theocracy continues to reinvent itself as it faces internal and international threats. Iran’s political system can be best described as clerical authoritarianism with weak democratic elements. One argument put forward in this book is that various threats to religious leaders and other political elites have affected the domestic and foreign policies adopted by the Islamic Republic of Iran. Thus one needs to understand the evolution of the Iranian political system and its policies in the framework of both real and perceived threats.

In addition, this book considers the democratization process in Iran. Since the early years of the twentieth century, Iranians have attempted to make their political system more democratic. Yet various attempts to move the society in a more democratic and accountable direction have failed to produce a consolidated democratic political system where citizens have a meaningful voice in political decisions. This book argues that greater democratization is unlikely to occur in the short term, especially in light of increased threats from the international community.

An Introduction to the History of Iran

Chapter 2 examines important political events that preceded the Islamic Republic of Iran—the Constitutional Revolution and the reign of the Pahlavis. In the Constitutional Revolution one can see a failed attempt to promote a more democratic polity. The monarchy enacted numerous policies to prevent a genuine democracy from taking hold. This chapter primarily focuses on the major factors that led to the crumbling of the Pahlavi reign. The shah’s coziness with the West, his disrespect for Islam, the human rights violations committed by his regime, his unwillingness to share power and engage in meaningful democratic reforms, and the economic problems plaguing the country all led to his removal from the Peacock Throne. The failures of the shah, all criticized sharply by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, contributed to the Islamic Revolution of 1979.

This chapter also examines the role of Ayatollah Khomeini before the Revolution; his influence during the late 1970s, despite his exile in Turkey, Iraq, and later France; and how his views affected the theocracy that was created. Although the Western media often portrayed Khomeini as a rigid leader and absolute ruler of Iran, that image is misleading. And though Khomeini was highly influential throughout the 1970s and until his death in 1989, he was not in complete control of the creation of this new political system. This work suggests a more nuanced understanding of the role that Khomeini played. Although he was an important figure in the Revolution, he was not the grand puppeteer pulling the strings every step of the way. Other individuals, some of whom were his more radical followers, pushed him into policies that he did not initiate. Furthermore, the image of an inflexible Ayatollah who never compromised misses the mark. Though it may have been a delayed response, accepting the cease-fire (drinking from a poisoned chalice) to end the war in Iraq in the 1980s shows his eventual pragmatism and realism. There are other instances where Khomeini’s pragmatism comes through (e.g., evolution on women’s voting rights and participation in the political system, and dealings with the so-called Great Satan, America, in the Iran-Contra affair). In this book I use Khomeini’s writings to demonstrate not just his profound influence on the Iranian political landscape but also the evolution of his thoughts from a young cleric in Qom to the leader of a unique political system in the 1980s.

The Revolution and the Role of Religion

Chapter 3 explores the role of religion in Iranian politics. Religion, specifically Shia Islam, is a powerful belief system and source of identity in Iran today. And religion’s influence on Iranian politics is nothing new. Dating back to the sixth century BCE, Zoroastrianism was an influential religion in Persia, and Zoroastrians believed that religion had political as well as spiritual concerns.³ Shia Islam supplanted Zoroastrianism to become the dominant religion in the country in the sixteenth century.

In the last century, religion for some became a consuming worldview that provided choices and answers, and that gave meaning to individuals’ lives. Although some Enlightenment and contemporary thinkers have argued for the separation of religion and politics, religion continues to be a potent force in politics. Despite the predictions of many that religion will wither away, religion is still an important element in the construction of group identity, and it is a key force in Iran.⁴

For Ayatollah Khomeini, the founding father of the Islamic Revolution of 1979, Islamic law, or shari’a, offered a just political system. That the Pahlavi regime had deviated significantly from the basis of Islamic law demonstrated to Khomeini that the regime was unjust. The grievances of many Iranians against their monarch led to a revolution that was unique in the twentieth century. Many of the revolutions that occurred in the twentieth century were Marxist in orientation. Given that Marx believed that religion was the opiate of the masses, religion was banished by many Marxist revolutionaries. Iranians, conversely, embraced a version of Islam and harnessed its power in their Revolution. Given that more than 90 percent of Iranians follow the Shia faith, it is not surprising that religion provided a frame of reference for many who opposed the shah’s rule and demanded political change.

Moreover, by the late 1970s many secular ideologies had failed to bring about social and economic change in the Middle East. Ideas such as communism and modernization did little to improve the lives of many in the region. Aside from the failure of these Western ideas to galvanize or rally many Iranians, there also remained a general resistance to foreign ideologies that were a reminder of Western domination and imperialism. Islam, conversely, was indigenous to the region and familiar to the people. Thus it is not surprising that political Islam would have a following and would be the vehicle for a revolution in Iran.⁵

Given its unique nature and its lasting impact on Iran, the Revolution of 1979 is analyzed in great detail in chapter 3. Specifically, I focus on how—through the ideas, practices, and symbols of Shia Islam, and a grassroots network based on Shia Islam—the revolutionaries were able to overthrow an established monarchy. I also examine how Ayatollah Khomeini came to lead and personify the Revolution in Iran. He also initiated far-reaching political changes upon his return to his homeland in February 1979. Some of the men and women in the streets openly sobbed as he was driven past.⁶ He received a hero’s welcome from millions of Iranians upon arriving in his native land in February 1979.

The grassroots network and religious ideas based on Shia Islam not only shaped and drove the Revolution of 1979; they also colored the political system that was subsequently created. Understanding the Revolution sets the stage for the theocracy that was established in its aftermath.

Iran has a unique political system in the twenty-first century. As a theocracy, Iran’s political system is supposed to be based on and consistent with Islam. In addition, this political system is dominated by religious elites. This is most clearly demonstrated in the office of the supreme leader. Iran created one of the few theocratic political systems in global politics. This demonstrates the importance of religion while also presenting some difficulties for understanding this polity.

Some scholars have described Iran’s system as “one of the most complex Byzantine, fragmented, and opaque on Earth.”⁷ Elements of the political system, such as the Guardian Council and the Assembly of Experts, are unknown or generally misunderstood. Chapter 3 sheds light on the political institutions that were established at the birth of this new regime.

Since 1979, many prominent individuals—Khomeini, Rafsanjani, and the like—have struggled to control the levers of power in Iran. Various domestic factions have vied for power, including neoconservatives and hard-line conservatives who believe in Khomeini’s efforts to spread the Revolution and his anti-Western approach. There have also been reformers and pragmatic conservatives who are willing to cooperate with the West and moderate some of the harsher aspects of the theocracy in domestic affairs. The results of these power struggles and the religious ideas that justify various policies have contributed to the country’s unique political system. In addressing these different institutions within Iran, chapter 3 explains the factionalism at work and the different centers of power.

Elections in Iran

Despite the criticisms that have been raised regarding Iran’s theocracy, Iranians voted to change their political system from a monarchy to an Islamic republic. One very curious element of the foundation of Iran’s political system rests on the fact that in 1979, Iranians were consulted and allowed to voice their political preferences in a largely democratic process. One may wonder why the revolutionary leaders decided to allow the Iranian public to have a political voice at all. Why did Khomeini and his cadre turn to a referendum to alter the political system? Shia Islam does not emphasize the notion of consultation in the manner that Sunni Islam does. One possible answer was that they were confident of the outcome. People in Iran were so frustrated with the shah, his government, and his policies that the revolutionary leaders were assured of a victory. That the referendum consisted of one narrowly tailored question lends support to this explanation. It simply asked if the people wanted to replace the monarchy and establish an Islamic republic.

Some revolutionary leaders also saw the benefits of a participatory process. Political leaders have often boasted of the fact that more than 90 percent of the eligible public took part in the creation of the Islamic Republic.⁸ Elections and referenda, especially when free from manipulation, can confer legitimacy on a political system. Although the system that was created is not a liberal democracy, Iranians participated in a democratic campaign, and there are democratic elements in this resulting political system. Furthermore, no elected official has ever refused to give up office at the end of his term. Thus the peaceful handover of power is a norm of Iran’s political system.

Chapter 4 analyzes the presidential and parliamentary elections in Iran since 1980. Some readers may be surprised to learn that since the Islamic Revolution in 1979, Iran has experienced multiple elections for president and for the legislature. This chapter examines why the Islamic Republic continues to stress and hold elections, and it analyzes the role that elections have played in Iran. Chapter 4 also discusses some instances of electoral manipulation.

Human Rights in Iran

Despite the fact that millions of Iranians welcomed Khomeini and voted for the political changes he endorsed, many observers outside Iran have expressed their concerns about the political system that was created after the Iranian Revolution. There are a number of reasons why human rights activists, governmental officials, and scholars share this common concern. Some have complained that the Revolution ushered in discrimination and oppression. Although Iran was not a blossoming liberal democracy under the shah, the monarchy had better relations with many other countries and offered some of its members (women in particular) more freedom than the political system that followed.⁹

This book addresses the importance of human rights in Iran and the global and domestic forces that influence this topic. Since the Islamic Republic transformed Iran’s political system, there have been si...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface
• Glossary
• 1 Introduction: The Incomplete Revolution
• Part I: The Past
• Part II: The Present Political Regime
• Part III. The Future
• Bibliography
• Index