Mehmed Ali

From Ottoman Governor to Ruler of Egypt

Khaled Fahmy

• Publisher: Oneworld Academic
• Year: 2012
• eBook ISBN: 9781780742113
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Middle Eastern History

Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha (c. 1770–1849), often dubbed "the founder of modern Egypt", was one of the most important figures in the history of the Ottoman Empire. Born in what is now Greece, and seemingly headed for an everyday existence as a tobacco trader, he joined the Ottoman army at the age of thirty, and went on to become both the leader of Egypt for nearly fifty years and the founder of a dynasty that ruled for a century after his death. In this insightful and well-constructed biography, Khaled Fahmy assesses the renowned ruler's life, and his significant contribution to Egyptian, Ottoman, and Islamic history. Examining the unprecedented economic, military, and social policies that he introduced in Egypt, as well as Mehmed Ali's intricate relationship with his family, Fahmy provides a fresh assessment of this towering nineteenth-century personality.

MACEDONIAN ORIGINS

Approaching Kavala by the highway that links it to Thessaloniki about 130 kilometers further west, one is immediately struck by the serene beauty of this small Greek town. Hugged by lush hills from three sides, the town spreads along the narrow coastal plain and faces south towards the island of Thasos whose Ypsario mountains hover serenely above the blue Aegean haze. The lush mountainous landscape to the north gradually slopes down to tobacco-growing fields and drained marshlands supporting rice cultivation. Beekeeping hives and vineyards dot the landscape and are evidence of the rich agricultural economy of the town’s hinterland.

Placed within a setting of exquisite natural beauty, Kavala’s topography also reveals a long and rich history. The Byzantine walls surrounding the old Ottoman town, at the top of which stands an impressive Byzantine castle, are a reminder of the strategic importance the town played for the Byzantine Empire. The famous Via Egnatia linking the ancient city of Rome via the Adriatic through Macedonia and Thrace, to the “new” Rome, i.e. Constantinople, runs literally through the town. Just a few kilometers further north is the famous archaeological site of ancient Philippi, where the fate of the Roman Empire was decided in 42 BCE and where, nearly a century later, St Paul halted to build the first Christian church in Europe. And as if these Roman, Christian and Byzantine pasts are not impressive enough, Kavala also witnessed an important phase of its history when the Ottoman Sultan Murad I incorporated it into his empire in 1387. The long Ottoman era left its mark on the topography of the town, most notably by the impressive aqueduct supplying the city with fresh water, and by the large mosque in the city center – now the Church of St Nicholas – both built by Ibrahim Pasha, grand vizier to Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent.

It was in this town in Rumelia, as the European part of the Ottoman Empire is known, that Mehmed Ali was born in the third quarter of the eighteenth century. How this man crossed the Mediterranean Sea to Egypt, how he established himself as ruler of this important Ottoman province for almost half a century, and how he founded a dynasty there that ruled for a hundred years after his death – all these events add up to a fascinating story. Referred to in Ottoman historiography as Kavalalı Mehmed Ali Paşa and in Egyptian historiography usually under the Arabic spelling of his name, Muhammad ‘Ali, he came to be known as the “founder of modern Egypt”. Using the name by which he was known in his Turkish mother tongue – Mehmed Ali – he was to become one of the most remarkable men in modern Islamic history and, as we shall see, his life story offers an insight into an intriguing chapter of the history of modern Egypt. Moreover, the policies he pursued as ruler of Egypt constituted one of the most dangerous threats facing the Ottoman Empire during its long history. The following pages tell the story of this remarkable man.

BIRTH

1769 is usually thought to be the year in which Mehmed Ali was born, being the one he chose as his year of birth in the many interviews he would conduct with foreign visitors when he became the ruler of Egypt. This was perhaps to remind his eager listeners that it was also the year in which Napoleon and Wellington were born, two statesmen he admired and with whom he wanted to be associated. Nevertheless, a commemorative medal struck in 1847 at the time of the inauguration of the barrages across the Nile at the apex of the Delta states that Mehmed Ali was born in 1184 AH (or 1770–1771 CE). This, together with information inscribed on his tomb, leads us to believe that the real year of his birth was more likely to have been 1770.

The difficulty in determining Mehmed Ali’s birth is but one example of the obscurity which surrounded his life before he left for Egypt in 1801. From humble origins and with no official positions or great deeds attributed to him by then, there are few reasons why Mehmed Ali would have left any significant traces in history books that related to his life in Rumelia. Later, as ruler of Egypt he was amenable to telling stories of his earlier life to interested foreigners keen to record the experiences of someone who they believed was a great oriental ruler; but even so, he was never very forthcoming with details of his youth. He once told a German prince:

I do not love this period of my life ... It is enough if posterity knows that all Mehemet Ali has attained he owes neither to birth nor [to] interest – to no one but himself. My history, however, shall not commence till the period when, free from all restraint, I could arouse [Egypt], which I love as my own country, from the sleep of ages and mould it to a new existence. (Pückler-Muskau, 1845, I, 317–318)

As much as Mehmed Ali would have liked to forget his early years in Kavala – which he came to describe as years of “combat and misery, cunning and bloodshed” – it is impossible to conceal the facts from future generations as he would have wished. Arriving neither as an infant nor even an adolescent, he was already over thirty years old when he landed in Alexandria, by which time he had already married and fathered five children. Even although he lived there for almost fifty years and his fame and glory were tied to Egypt – “my country” as he came to call it – one cannot dismiss the fact that those formative years in Rumelia were bound to have influenced his Egyptian policies and outlook on life in general.

CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE

Few facts can be established about these early years with any degree of certainty. However, there is no doubt surrounding the identity of his father – a man called Ibrahim Ağa, the son of Osman Ağa, son of Ibrahim Ağa. Family tradition maintained that Ibrahim Ağa was not originally from Kavala and that his paternal grandfather had hailed from Konya in central Anatolia. Before then the family traced its origins to areas further east, which gave rise to an idea that they were originally Kurds. Be that as it may, by the time they settled in Kavala in ca. 1700, they had lost whatever Kurdish identity they might have had; their language was Turkish, they professed Sunni Islam and intermingled with Rumelia’s population of Muslims, Jews and Orthodox Christians who were all subjects of the Ottoman sultan.

Beyond his name, little else is known of Mehmed Ali’s father. In some accounts he is described as having some military position, most likely as head of night sentries who guarded the highways which led to and from Kavala. His relationship with his son Mehmed Ali appears to have been ambivalent. On the one hand Mehmed Ali recalled with admiration and gratitude that, having survived infancy, he was singled out by his father and brought up in a cushioned atmosphere; but then again, he also appeared resentful of his father precisely for this pampered upbringing. He once recollected that his parents were very protective of him and were eager to “bring me up [as] a gentleman. Hence I soon became effeminate and indolent; my young companions began to despise me and used frequently to cry out, ‘what will become of Mehemet Ali, who has nothing and is fit for nothing!’” When he turned fifteen, he added, he became determined to overcome this timidity and to undertake a rigorous regime of physical exercise and self discipline, which included fasting and sleep deprivation for days on end (Pückler-Muskau, 1845, I, 318).

Perhaps it was this ambivalent relationship with his father, together with his desire to emphasize that he was a self-made man, which lay behind Mehmed Ali’s later claim that his father had died while he was an infant, and then his mother when he was a small child. This is simply not true, for Ibrahim Ağa’s tombstone in Kavala clearly states that he died in 1205 AH/1790–1 CE, i.e. when Mehmed Ali was twenty years old, while his mother’s tombstone states that she died five years later in 1210 AH/1795–6 CE, by which time Mehmed Ali had married and already fathered three children.

As for his mother, little is known about her other than her name, Zeyneb Hatun, and that she was from a small village called Nusretli in the province of Drama to the north of Kavala. She too might have been soft with her son and have contributed to what Mehmed Ali later thought was a pampered upbringing. It is very likely that Zeyneb’s brother was governor of Kavala (‘Arif, n.d., I, fol. 3), which would have enabled her to secure a place for her son in any of the local Quran schools so he could learn how to read and write; in fact, she did nothing of the kind and her son became literate only much later in life when he turned forty. Without literacy, Mehmed Ali would have been unable to secure a position as scribe that his uncle or uncle’s friend, the governor of the province of Drama, might have provided him with. He therefore tried his luck in the tobacco trade which his father is recorded as having been engaged in on the side. This brief encounter with trade is what gave rise to the notion that Mehmed Ali was a merchant by profession before he arrived in Egypt. While it is not clear how long he may have helped his father in this business, if at all, he did not need to be personally engaged with trade in order to appreciate fully its importance. Kavala was surrounded by tobacco fields of the finest quality, and the city itself, while lacking a deep natural harbor, was of prime commercial significance because of its strategic location on the road connecting Thessaloniki to Istanbul – two of the largest and busiest commercial centers of the Ottoman Empire.

It is not with his mercantile astuteness that Mehmed Ali tried to impress his foreign admirers in the few reminiscences which are to be found concerning his adolescence. Rather, the emphasis was on his will-power and how he overcame whatever deficiency he thought he had been saddled with; of challenging his playmates to physical exercises; of picking up horsemanship and mastering it; and of ultimately forcing his friends to recognize him as their peer, even as having a slight edge over them. Of the many stories that he was fond of telling, the following extract captures the themes of fortitude, determination, self discipline and superiority that he wanted to impress upon his listeners.

I well recollect our laying a wager one very stormy day, to row over to a small island, which still remains in my possession, I was the only one who reached it, but although the skin came off my hands, I would not suffer the most intense pain to divert me from my purpose. In this manner I continued to invigorate both mind and body, till, as I have already told you, I afterwards found ample opportunity in a graver sphere of action, to prove my courage to myself and others during petty warfare in our villages. (Pückler-Muskau, 1845, I, 318)

 

Here, as in many other stories, a picture emerges of a young lad who is far from being timid or soft. Gone were the days when he felt intimidated by his playmates; if anything, it was now he who was intimidating them. In fact, from these stories one can discern the coming of age of a man who could see through his playmates’ souls and who had managed to mould them into a group of dedicated and admiring followers. His remarkable leadership qualities could be discerned from these early days by his ability to inspire admiration in some of the young men who gathered around him, while coaxing, if not bullying, others into doing his bidding. And it is not difficult to see from these stories that some of his fellow inhabitants, as well as the residents of nearby towns, were aware of a reputation he was building as someone who could set things right and address local grievances in a swift and decisive manner.

In one story, for example, we are told that Mehmed Ali went to his uncle, the governor of Kavala, and offered to help him deal with some recalcitrant villages who refused to pay their taxes. After some hesitation, the governor gave him the go-ahead, and immediately the young lad set out with his followers to one of these villages. Rather than confront its able-bodied men on their own territory, he proceeded to the village mosque as if to pray. Secretly, though, he had sent some of his men to summon four senior villagers to meet him in the mosque. The unsuspecting men obliged, only to realize that they had been arrested and taken hostage. Eventually, the entire village grudgingly agreed to pay back its tax arrears.

MARRIAGE

While the governor must have been pleased that the taxes were collected, he was not particularly thrilled by the manner in which his nephew had managed to do so. He believed that something needed to be done to calm the lad down, and so he was probably extremely relieved when he heard from his nephew that he was thinking to marry and start a family. On one of his trips to nearby Drama to visit the governor of that town Mehmed Ali had asked if there was a suitable young girl to whom he could get married. He was told that there was indeed a young woman called Emine from the village of Nusretli, the same village from which his mother had come; in fact, he might even have heard of this young woman, for she had become the talk of town after her previous husband had been shot dead before the marriage was consummated, leaving her a small fortune. Given the difference in social standing between himself and Emine, Mehmed Ali did not take the governor’s proposal very seriously. However, much to his pleasant surprise, he discovered that the governor was indeed serious about his offer and that his uncle was pushing for it. Since it was understood that Mehmed Ali would move to Nusretli and set up home in his new wife’s house there, what better way, his uncle must have thought, to help the young lad to settle down?

Mehmed Ali’s marriage to Emine took place in 1787, when he was seventeen years old, and she was to remain his devoted wife for the next thirty-seven years until she died in Alexandria in 1823. Together they had five children, all born in Nusretli while the family still lived there: Tevhide (1787–1830), Ibrahim (1789–1848), Ahmed Tousson (1793–1816), Ismail (1795–1822) and Nazlı (a.k.a. Hatice, 1799–1860). (After Emine’s death Mehmed Ali had many other wives and concubines with whom he had probably about twenty children, most of whom died in infancy.)

The young Mehmed Ali supported his growing family by investing his wife’s small wealth in the lucrative tobacco trade. It seems though that Mehmed Ali’s old friends did not leave him alone and every now and then they would call on him to accompany them on one of their little escapades. It was one of these outings that proved to be one misadventure too many for his uncle, prompting him to think that he needed to think of somewhere further afield to which he could send his nephew.

The incident involved a man by the name of Ağu who, like Mehmed Ali, was from Kavala and who was also reputed to be brave and strong. This Ağu fell out with his own brother, Osman Ağa, who eventually killed him and sought refuge in the house of Mehmed Ali’s uncle, the governor of Kavala. Without seeking his uncle’s permission, Mehmed Ali and his small gang stormed into the governor’s house, seized the killer, dragged him out of the house and hanged him on a nearby tree. The governor was enraged that his nephew had taken the law into his own hands; but at the same time there was little he could do, given the young man’s growing popularity and his ability to set things right.

Eventually he found an ingenious way out. Three years earlier, the entire Ottoman world had been shocked by news from Egypt that a large French army had landed there headed by a general known as Bonaparte who, young though he was, had already made a name for himself in Italy. This news came as a complete surprise, given that France was a traditional European ally of the Ottoman Empire. As part of his empire since 1517, the sultan could not afford to lose such a pivotal province as Egypt, the governor of which contributed a sizeable annual tribute. In addition, he was entrusted with the important duty of protecting the pilgrimage routes to Mecca and Medina. By the time diplomatic negotiations failed in 1801, the sultan was determined to evict the French by force, having received firm assurances from the British that they would assist him in his endeavor. An army of newly trained troops was dispatched by land via Syria led by the grand vizier, Yusuf Ziya Pasha. The sultan hoped to raise a further force of 4000 troops in Rumelia, and orders were sent to the governor of Kavala to collect 300 irregular troops for dispatch to Egypt.

This, then, was the governor’s opportunity to be free of his troublesome nephew. He approached the governor of Rumelia with boastful claims about Mehmed Ali’s valor and bravery and managed to enlist his nephew in the troops destined for Egypt. In fact Mehmed Ali was appointed as second in command of that force, which was to be led by the governor’s own son, Ali Ağa. Leaving behind his wife and children, Mehmed Ali thus embarked on a trip that was to change the course of his life, as well as the fate of Egypt and of the Ottoman world.

THE EGYPTIAN QUAGMIRE

By the time Mehmed Ali arrived in Egypt in 1801 the country had been ravaged by incessant warfare against l’Armé de l’Orient, the French army of occupation. For three years the French struggled to pacify the country and to establish a foothold in the eastern Mediterranean. The young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, had hoped this would be a springboard to spread French influence further east in order to threaten British possessions in India. However, the Egyptian population – whether in the cities or in the countryside, and as much in t...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title page
• Copyright page
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• 1 MACEDONIAN ORIGINS
• 2 THE EGYPTIAN QUAGMIRE
• 3 CONSOLIDATION OF POWER
• 4 ENTRENCHMENT
• 5 EXPANDING HORIZONS
• 6 THE FINAL SHOWDOWN
• 7 TRIUMPH
• 8 THE PASHA’S MULTIPLE LEGACIES
• Bibliography
• Index