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The Curious Journey of âCopyrightâ in East Asia
IN THE SPRING OF 1899, a provincial teacher in Fujian named Lin Shu received a strange request from Wang Kangnian (1860â1911), proprietor of a progressive journal in Shanghai, regarding Bali chahua nĂŒ yishi (The story of the lady of the camellias in Paris), his Chinese translation of Alexandre Dumasâs La Dame aux camĂ©lias, which Lin and his friend Wang Shouchang (1864â1926) had completed not long before, initially as a winter pastime project. It became an instant best seller after their friend Wei Han (1850â1929) published the first edition in Fuzhou with woodblock printing. Sensing the potential commercial value of this work, Wang expressed a keen interest in paying a lump sum for Linâs permission to republish it in Shanghai. This is probably one of Chinaâs earliest copyright deals in a modern sense.
Lin Shu would later become Chinaâs highest-paid translator of Western fiction in the early twentieth century. In 1899, however, he declined the deal proposed to him. Lin told Wang via a mutual friend that he had no interest in receiving payment because they had translated the work for their amusement, not for profit. The one really entitled to âsellâ the rights to publish Bali chahua nĂŒ yishi, he also believed, was not him, but Wei Han, who had invested money in having the woodblocks carved and copies printed. When Wang reached out to Wei, Wei did agree to âsellâ the book, but, sharing Linâs disinterest in financial gain, he asked only for the cost of the woodblocks. To complete the deal, Wei insisted on sending the whole set of printing blocks to Shanghai, despite his awareness that Wang planned to republish the book using Western movable-type printing.
Occurring at a turning point in the development of Chinaâs cultural economy, this incident offers us a unique window onto how copyright, as a newly introduced âWesternâ concept, shaped (and was shaped by) the changing conceptions of book ownership in China. At the turn of the twentieth century, foreign knowledge and literary works were suddenly in high demand in the marketplace, owing to a decisive intellectual turn among educated Chinese and the Qing governmentâs Westernization initiatives. As an unprecedented number of foreign works were being translated into Chinese, hundreds, if not thousands, of new terms were created to translate and introduce foreign ideas, practices, institutions, and things that were deemed ânew,â âcivilized,â âprogressive,â and therefore worth the Chinese effort to learn and adapt. Among them was the concept of âcopyright,â or banquan in Chinese.
The somewhat amusing negotiations over Bali chahua nĂŒ yishi, to a certain extent, can be seen as a not-so-effective conversation between those who spoke the language of copyright and those who did not. What Wang intended to acquire was an authorization from Lin, the translator, likely with the belief that whoever creates the literary work owns it and should exclusively control the use and distribution of the work, an understanding that is close to the contemporary meaning of intellectual property rights. What he eventually received, however, was a set of tangible printing blocks that were useless to him. This incident provides a snapshot of the time lag in the transmission of Western ideas to China between the countryâs center and its periphery. Wang, who had been running several progressive, pro-Westernization political journals in the treaty port of Shanghai, was better equipped with Western ideas and âenlightenedâ earlier than those in Fujian.
Linâs and Weiâs response, however, suggests that, when the idea of copyright was introduced in China, it was not âspreadingâ onto a tabula rasa. They might not comprehend the notion of copyright, but they had a clear idea of book ownership as a kind of proprietary claim of transmittable private property. They considered that the exclusive right and ability to produce copies of Bali chahua nĂŒ yishi belonged to whoever paid for and retained the woodblocks used to print it. For them, it was the printing blocks, not the writing or translation, that made the book come into being. Therefore, the proper ownership transaction would not be complete unless the block set was transferred from Fujian to Shanghai, even if Wang had chosen a different printing method. Only by sending the blocks to him, they argued, could the capacity to produce (and sell) more copies of the book be transferred to Wang, the new owner of Bali chahua nĂŒ yishi.
Therefore, this was not merely a conversation between those who spoke the language of copyright and those who did not, but a negotiation between two different understandings of what embodies âthe right to copy.â In this chapter, tracing how the English word âcopyrightâ became the Chinese term banquan, which literally means âthe right to printing blocks,â I will examine the negotiations and struggles of the early East Asian promoters and practitioners of copyright between these two understandings of ownership of the book. While this chapter looks at the use of words the early promoters associated with the notion of copyright, the practices they and their contemporaries undertook in the name of âthe right to printing blocksâ would be an even more crucial subject of inquiry. The early promoters of copyright in East Asia portrayed copyright as a progressive universal doctrine completely alien to the local culture, one that, for the sake of national survival, needed to be transplanted artificially. This chapter argues, however, that their contemporariesâ actual practices of âcopyrightâ tell a different storyâthe ânewâ means used to declare banquan ownership were derived from some early modern practices whereby profits were secured from printed books.
Making Copyright the âPublic Law under Heavenâ
To trace the journey of the very concept of âcopyrightâ to China, one has to start in Japan. The Chinese term for copyright, banquan, was, after all, not coined in China. The person responsible for combining han/ban (printing block(s)) and ken/quan (right) to translate âcopyrightâ was Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835â1901), one of the most influential public intellectuals of the Meiji era. In most standard narratives of modern Japanese history, he appears as a major champion of bunmeikaika (enlightenment and civilization), and the Benjamin Franklin of Japan. In the 1860s and 1870s, he introduced a wide range of Western ideas and practices in Japan, from civil rights to eating beef, to transform his country into a strong and independent modern nation. Looking back from the 1890s, Fukuzawa proudly credited his translations of foreign ideas with the birth of a ânew Japan.â In his autobiography, he highlighted the significance of his coining of hanken çæš©: âAt the time there was no term [in Japanese] to convey the meaning of copyright,â he stated. âNo one truly understood that the exclusive right of publishing work belongs to its author; this is a form of private property.â By inventing hanken to capture the essence of copyright, he proclaimed, he did not merely translate a term from English to Japanese, but enlightened his fellow countrymen on an advanced type of property rights that had not existed in Japan before.
What Fukuzawa did not mention in this self-aggrandizing account is that his introduction of copyright to early Meiji Japan did not proceed without a hitch. He actually translated âcopyrightâ into Japanese twice, first as zĆhan no menkyo (license for possessing the printing blocks) around 1868, and then as hanken in 1873, to convince his contemporaries to respect this new doctrine. He also failed to mention that his enthusiastic promotion of copyright was driven not entirely by certain noble Enlightenment ideals, but by his struggle to protect his livelihood against unauthorized reprinting at the time. The period between Fukuzawaâs two translations of âcopyrightâ coincided with the peak of his publishing business, as well as the most active period of his legal actions against unauthorized reprints. His translations and practices of copyright must thus be understood in conjunction with his economic life, especially his âbusiness of Enlightenment.â
Fukuzawa started his âbusiness of Enlightenmentâ on the eve of the Meiji Restoration. Born into a low-ranking samurai family, he was first a student of traditional Confucian learning and then a devotee of Dutch studies (rangaku), a body of Western knowledge, especially technology and medicine, developed in early modern Japan via its contact with the Dutch. Although his command of Dutch studies earned him a position as the official Dutch teacher of his home domain, he quickly moved on to study English, after discovering that the international language of the time was English rather than Dutch. To improve his English, he served voluntarily in the Tokugawa government...