Fight Parkinson's and Huntington's with Vitamins and Antioxidants

Kedar N. Prasad

• Publisher: Healing Arts Press
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9781620554333
• eBook ISBN: 9781620554340
• Topic: Medicine
• Subtopic: Nutrition, Dietics & Bariatrics

The most up-to-date resource on the powerful benefits of nutritional supplements for the treatment of Parkinson's and Huntington's disease• Provides an easy-to-follow program of supplements to optimize the benefits of treatment, slow the progression of symptoms, and help delay onset in those predisposed to these diseases• Shows how specific combinations of antioxidants counteract the oxidative stress and chronic inflammation at the root of these diseases• Based on more than 35 years of scientific and medical researchIn this practical scientific guide, micronutrient researcher Kedar N. Prasad, Ph.D., reveals the latest revolutionary discoveries on the use of antioxidants to treat Parkinson's and Huntington's disease. He details how the proper combinations of vitamin and antioxidant supplements, along with polyphenic compounds such as curcumin and resveratrol, can greatly increase the effectiveness of standard medical treatments for these diseases, slowing the progression of symptoms as well as delaying onset despite family history.Prasad shows how oxidative stress and chronic inflammation play a significant role in the initiation and progression of neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's and Huntington's disease. He provides an easy-to-follow daily supplement regimen to target free-radical damage and inflammation and slow the progression of these diseases. Reviewing the scientific research on micronutrients and neurodegenerative disease, he debunks the flawed conclusions of the neurological community that vitamins and antioxidants are ineffective, revealing how their studies focused on specific micronutrients used alone rather than synergistic combinations.Offering a safe self-help complement to standard medications, this guide provides a truly holistic approach to the prevention and treatment of both Parkinson's and Huntington's disease.

1

A Closer Look at the Human Brain

Despite extensive research by neuroanatomists, neurobiologists, neurochemists, and neurophysiologists, many aspects of the brain’s structure and functioning remain tantalizingly unclear. The “Decade of the Brain,” an initiative of the U.S. government in the 1990s under President George Bush, has increased our knowledge of brain functioning somewhat. Still, the work goes on to discover its myriad mysteries. Research endeavors include the study of animal and human neuronal and glial cell culture, the brain tissue of animals (primarily rodents and occasionally nonhuman primates), and human brains obtained at autopsy. Current research also includes noninvasive techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), as well as invasive techniques such as obtaining fresh brain tissues from animals after euthanasia and human brain samples obtained whenever possible during surgery.

This chapter describes very briefly, and in simple terms, the structure and functions of the human brain that are relevant to chronic neurological diseases. It’s important to have a fundamental understanding of how the brain works so that we can better understand the dynamics involved when it becomes impaired.

THE HUMAN BRAIN

Basic Facts

The average weight of the human adult brain is about three pounds (1.5 kilograms). In women the volume of the brain is approximately 1,130 cubic centimeters and in men it is about 1,260 cubic centimeters, although significant individual variations are found. The brain consists of three main regions: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Brain regions are divided into the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the limbic system, and the brain stem.

The brain also contains four interconnected cavities that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid, as well as approximately 100 billion neurons. Neurons are a unique type of cell in that they can receive, synthesize, store, and transmit information from one neuron to another. Figure 1.1 presents a view of various structures of the human brain.

Figure 1.1. This image shows a horizontal slice of the head of an adult man, revealing the different structures of the human brain. Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine’s Visible Human Project.

The Cerebrum and Its Function

The cerebrum, or cortex, is the largest part of the human brain, having a surface area of about 1.3 square feet (0.12m²), folded in such a way so as to allow it to fit within the skull. This folding causes ridges of the cerebrum; these are called gyri collectively or gyrus in the singular. Crevices in the cortex are called sulcus or sulci (collectively). The cerebrum is divided into the right and left hemispheres, which are connected by a fibrous band of nerves called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is responsible for communication between the hemispheres. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and oversees temporal and spatial relationships, the analysis of nonverbal information, and the communication of emotion. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and produces and understands language.

The cortex of each hemisphere is divided into four lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe. Certain functions of the lobes overlap with one another. The frontal lobe is responsible for cognition and memory, behavior, abstract thought processes, problem solving, analytic and critical reasoning, attention, creative thought, voluntary motor activity, language skills, emotional traits, intellect, reflection, judgment, physical reaction, inhibition, libido (the sexual urge), and initiative.

The parietal lobe oversees basic sensations such as touch, pain, pressure, temperature sensitivity, various joint movements, tactile sensations, spatial relationships, and sensitivity to an exact point of tactile contact as well as the ability to distinguish between two points of tactile stimulation, some language and reading functions, and some visual functions.

The occipital lobe is involved in interpreting visual impulses and reading.

The temporal lobe is involved with auditory (sound) sensations, speech, the sensation of smell, one’s sense of identity, fear, music, some vision pathways, and some emotions and memories.

Nerve cells form the gray surface of the cerebrum, which is a little thicker than the nerve fibers that carry signals between nerve cells and other parts of the body.

The Cerebellum

The cerebellum is much smaller than the cerebrum, but, like the cerebrum, it has a highly folded surface. This portion of the brain is associated with the coordination of movement, posture and balance, and cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor functions.

The Limbic System

The limbic system includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. It is responsible for processing emotion and storing and retrieving memory.

The Thalamus

The thalamus is a large, paired, egg-shaped structure containing clusters of nuclei (gray matter); it is responsible for sensory and motor functions. Sensory information enters the thalamus, which relays the information to the overlying cerebral cortex.

The Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located ventral to the thalamus and is responsible for regulating emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms, the autonomic nervous system, and the pituitary gland.

The Amygdala

The amygdala is located in the temporal lobe just beneath the surface of the hippocampus and is associated with memory, emotion, and fear.

The Hippocampus

The hippocampus is that portion of the cerebral hemisphere in the basal medial part of the temporal lobe. It is responsible for learning and memory. It is also responsible for converting short-term memory to more permanent memory and for recalling spatial relationships.

The Brain Stem

The brain stem is located underneath the limbic system. It’s responsible for regulating breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. The main constituents of the brain stem are the midbrain, pons, medulla, and the pyramidal and extrapyramidal systems.

The Midbrain

The midbrain, also called the mesencephalon, is located between the forebrain and the hindbrain (pons and medulla) and includes the tectum and the tegmentum. The midbrain participates in regulating motor functions, eye movements, pupil dilation, and hearing. The midbrain also contains the crus cerebri, which is made up of nerve fibers. These nerve fibers connect the cerebral hemispheres to the cerebellum and substantia nigra. The substantia nigra neurons are pigmented and consist of two parts, the pars reticulate and the pars compacta. Nerve cells of the pars compacta contain dark pigments (melanin granules). These neurons synthesize dopamine and project to either the caudate nucleus or the putamen. Both the caudate nucleus and the putamen are part of the basal ganglia, which regulate movement and coordination. The striatum part of the brain consists of the globus pallidus, the substantia nigra, and the basal ganglia.

The Pons

The pons (metencephalon) is located below the posterior portion of the cerebrum and above the medulla oblongata. It regulates arousal and sleep and participates in controlling autonomic functions. It also relays sensory information between the cerebrum and the cerebellum.

The Medulla (Medulla Oblongata)

The medulla, also called the myelencephalon, is the lower portion of the brain stem and is located anterior to the cerebellum. It regulates autonomic functions and relays nerve signals between the brain and the spinal cord.

The Pyramidal and Extrapyramidal Systems

Both the pyramidal and the extrapyramidal systems represent part of the motor pathways within the brain stem. Neurons of the pyramidal system have no synapses, whereas neurons of the extrapyramidal system have synapses. Nerve fibers of the pyramidal system originate in the cerebral cortex and continue on to the thalamus and medulla oblongata. The pyramidal system regulates fine movements such as control of the jaws, lips, and aspects of the face, conscious thoughts, and movements of the hands and fingers.

The major parts of the extrapyramidal system include the red nucleus, the caudate nucleus, the putamen, the substantia nigra, the globus pallidus, and the subthalamic nuclei. The extrapyramidal system dampens erratic motions, maintains muscle tone, and allows for overall functional stability.

Other Components of the Brain

Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are located deep in the cerebral hemisphere. They consist of the caudate nucleus, the putamen, the globus pallidus, the substantia nigra, and the subthalamic nucleus. They regulate posture and emotion, such as happiness, through dopamine. They also regulate movements and their intensity.

Neurons

Neurons (nerve cells) in the brain are highly complex, specialized cells that receive information, process it, and then send it in the form of electrical impulses through synapses to other neurons. (Synapses connect a neuron to other neurons.) A diagrammatic representation of a neuron is provided in figure 1.2. The estimation of the number of neurons in the brain varies from study to study, with one study estimating that the human brain contains about 100 billion neurons and about 100 trillion synapses (Williams and Herrup 1988). Approximately 3 to 5 percent of neurons are lost from the brain every decade after the age of thirty-five. Therefore, it’s possible that older individuals may have fewer neurons than the aforementioned estimated 100 billion neurons.

Figure 1.2. A typical neuron

A neuron consists of the cell body (also called soma), dendrites, and an axon. The cell body contains a nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and lysosomes, as well as smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Dendrites are filamentous structures that extend away from the cell body. They branch into several processes that become thinner the farther they extend. An axon is also a filamentous structure that extends itself from the cell body at a swelling called the axon hillock, which branches away from the soma. As it extends farther it undergoes further branching at the axonal terminal. These branches, through synapses, can communicate with more than one neuron at a time.

The soma can have numerous dendrites but only one axon. The axons of presynaptic neurons contain mitochondria and microtubules. The microtubules help to transport neurotransmitters from the cytoplasm to the tip of the axon, where they’re stored in very small vesicles. Incoming synaptic signals from other neurons are received by the dendrites; the outgoing signals are sent through the axons.

Presynaptic neurons are those that transmit signals to different neurons through the axon and its synapses. The neurons that receive these signals are called postsynaptic neurons. Axon terminals contain neurotransmitters that are released at the postsynaptic neurons.

There are three major specialized neurons: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. Sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light, and many other stimuli. They affect the cells of sensory organs and then send signals to the brain and the spinal cord. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and the spinal cord, cause muscle contractions, and affect glands. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same regions of the brain.

Other neurons include cholinergic neurons, dopaminergic neurons, glutamatergic neurons, GABAergic neurons, and serotonergic neurons. They are described below.

Cholinergic neurons: Cholinergic neurons are primarily located in the basal forebrain, striatum, and cerebral cortex. Each neuron contains an enzyme choline acetyltransferase, which makes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from choline. Acetylcholine is degraded by another enzyme called acetylcholinesterase. Acetylcholine is stored in small vesicles in the nerve endings. An elevation of extracellular calcium causes the release of acetylcholine from the vesicles. The action of this neurotransmitter is mediated through nicotinic receptors and muscarinic receptors. Cholinergic neurons are the primary source of acetylcholine for the cerebral cortex; acetylcholine regulates memory and learning ability.

Dopaminergic neurons: Dopamine belongs to the group of catechol-amines. It is degraded by the enzyme catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT). Neurons that produce dopamine (dopaminergic neurons) are also referred to as dopamine (DA) neurons. Dopaminergic neurons make a neurotransmitter dopamine (3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine) from L-dopa (L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine) with the help of the enzyme DOPA decarboxylase. L-dopa is made from the amino acid tyrosine by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase. Dopamine neurons are primarily located in the substantia nigra pars compacta, a part of the basal ganglia present in the midbrain. This area of the brain also contains melanin granules and a high level of iron (Chinta and Andersen 2005). The presence of melanin granules and iron exposes dopamine neurons to increased levels of free radicals.

The ventral tegmental area of the midbrain also contains dopamine neurons, which send their projections to the striatum, globus pallidus, and subthalamic nucleus. Although the number of dopamine neurons is relatively less, they regulate several functions, including voluntary movement, mood reward addiction, stress, motivation, arousal, and sexual gratification. The action of dopamine is mediated via dopamine receptors D1-5. Dopamine is converted to norepinephrine by the enzyme dopamine B-carboxylase, and norepinephrine is converted to epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase. Catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine) are degraded by the enzyme COMT and/or monoamine oxidase.

Glutamatergic neurons: Neurons producing glutamate are called glutamatergic neurons. Glutamate is considered one of the most important neurotransmitters for proper brain functioning. As mentioned earlier it is considered excitatory because it causes hyperactivity and kills neurons by excitotoxicity. Excitotoxicity refers to the ability of glutamate to kill neurons by producing prolonged excitatory synaptic transmission. Glutamate mediates its actions through its receptors N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), a-amino-3-hydroxy...

Table of contents

• Cover Image
• Title Page
• Epigraph
• Acknowledgments
• Table of Contents
• Preface: Why Should You Read This Book?
• Chapter 1: A Closer Look at the Human Brain
• Chapter 2: Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and the Immune System
• Chapter 3: Properties and Functions of Vitamins and Antioxidant Systems
• Chapter 4: Parkinson’s Disease: History, Incidence, Cost, and Causes
• Chapter 5: Prevention and Management of Parkinson’s Disease with Vitamins and Antioxidants
• Chapter 6: Huntington’s Disease: History, Incidence, Cost, and Causes
• Chapter 7: Prevention and Management of Huntington’s Disease with Vitamins and Antioxidants
• Appendix: Values of Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)/Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
• Footnotes
• Abbreviations and Terminologies
• Bibliography
• About the Author
• About Inner Traditions • Bear & Company
• Books of Related Interest
• Copyright & Permissions
• Index