Ancient Wars c.2500BCE–500CE

Dennis Showalter

• Publisher: Amber Books Ltd
• eBook ISBN: 9781782741176
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Military & Maritime History
• Index: History

The ancient world was a time when advanced edged weapons made of metal, sophisticated bows and siege engines replaced the basic weaponry of the prehistoric era, and great generals such as Alexander the Great developed battle tactics and strategies that are still studied today. This volume looks at the battles that were fought across the globe, whether it was the epic naval battles of Greece, or archers on elephants in India. The Ancient Wars c.2500BCE-500CE – the first volume in the Encyclopedia of Warfare Series –shows the conflicts that raged for two millennia as the first governments emerged and states began to develop. Starting with the earliest battles known to history, this is a chronological guide to conflict on every continent, from the Macedonian and Roman Empires to the great Chinese dynasties, from the early battles for Jerusalem to Hadrian's Wall, from the sieges of Troy to the fall of Rome. It tells the stories of how entire cities were razed to the ground, and how misjudgements of terrain and bad weather led to crushing defeats on the battlefield. Featuring full colour maps illustrating the formations and strategies used, plus narrative descriptions of the circumstances behind each battle, this is a comprehensive guide to the conflicts of the ancient world.The Encyclopedia of Warfare Series is an authoritative compendium of almost five millennia of conflict, from the ancient world to the Arab Spring. Written in a style accessible to both the student and the general enthusiast, it reflects the latest thinking among military historians and will prove an indispensible reference guide.

Ancient Wars
c.2500 BCE–500 CE

It is a reasonable assumption to make that hundreds – if not thousands – of ancient battles took place for which no record survives today. Yet even those that history has chosen to preserve come to us with the scantest detail, frustrating students from a later era.

Mediterranean & Middle Eastern Wars c.2500–500 BCE

■ HAIK VS NIMROD, C.2492 BCE
Nimrod came to rule Mesopotamia through military conquest, and founded several cities. According to Armenian legends, he was defeated near Lake Van by the Armenian patriarch Haik, who killed him with a bow shot from a great distance.

■ LAGASH VS UMMA, C.2450 BCE
The earliest battle currently known to history arose from a border dispute between the city-states of Lagash and Umma. Carvings of the battle suggest that the main fighting force involved was a dense phalanx of spearmen.

■ CONQUESTS OF SARGON, C.2234–2284 BCE
King Sargon of Akkad is credited with forming the world’s first true army. Leading a force of 5000 professional soldiers armed with bows and bronze hand weapons, he subdued and conquered Mesopotamia.

■ URUK, C.2340 BCE
During the conquest of Sumer, Sargon the Great’s army attacked and destroyed the city of Uruk. Surviving forces from the city formed part of a great Sumerian alliance, which was in turn defeated.

■ VICTORY OVER KASHTUBILA, C.2300 BCE
Among the foes faced by Sargon the Great was Kashtubila, king of Kazalla, a city to the west of Mesopotamia. Kashtubila opposed Sargon but was comprehensively defeated. His city was razed to the ground, so thoroughly destroyed that it was said that birds could not find anywhere to perch in the ruins.

■ MARI, C.2300 BCE
Sargon’s early campaigns were directed against city-states in the fertile crescent, cementing his power over the whole region. The city of Mari on the Euphrates river was one of his targets. Once conquered, it became an Akkadian administrative centre.

■ YARMUTI (JARMUT), C.2300 BCE
The location of Yarmuti is unclear, but it may have been a trading port on the Phoenician coast. Many of Sargon’s campaigns were directed at securing trade routes and valuable resources, which would make such a port a logical target.

■ EBLA, C.2250 BCE
Ebla was an important trade centre in northern Syria. It is claimed that Sargon of Akkad captured and destroyed the city, though the date and circumstances remain unclear. Ebla eventually regained some of its power, but was attacked again by Sargon’s grandson, Naram-Sin.

■ CEDAR FOREST & TAURUS, C.2250 BCE
Sargon’s campaigns took him northward into what is today known as Turkey, to the Amanus and Taurus mountains. It is unclear exactly what foes he faced here, possibly tribal peoples and small independent city-states.

■ FALL OF SUMER, C.2006 BCE
Changing agricultural conditions weakened the Sumerian city-states as pressure from Amorite tribes increased. Unable to feed its population, Sumeria was incapable of resistance and was gradually overrun by the invaders.

■ FALL OF UR, C.1940 BCE
The city-state of Ur was sacked by invading Elamite tribes from the east, after which Sumeria came under Amorite rule. The Amorites gradually became absorbed into the culture of the region, forming the basis for the Babylonian Empire.

■ BATTLES OF HAMMURABI, C.1763–1758 BCE
Predecessors of Hammurabi, the Amorite king of Babylon, had conquered some of the surrounding city-states. Hammurabi built on their success by making alliances then turning on his former allies, establishing Babylon as the dominant power in southern Mesopotamia.

■ ALEPPO, 1590 BCE
As Babylon declined in power, the Hittites were able to advance down the Euphrates river, sacking Aleppo. Internal troubles prevented the Hittites from consolidating their gains, and they ceased to be a major power for several decades.

■ MEGIDDO, C.1468 BCE
Pharoah Tuthmosis III was co-regent with his aunt, Hapshepsut, for the first 22 years of his reign. During this time he served as head of the army, gaining a reputation as an excellent commander. An alliance of Canaanite princes attempted to take advantage of the inevitable disruption caused by Hapshepsut’s death in order to secede from Egyptian rule. However, they had miscalculated; Tuthmosis moved rapidly against them at the head of a well-organized army. The subsequent battle at Megiddo was extensively recorded at the behest of the victorious Tuthmosis, becoming the first fully documented battle in history.

The Egyptian army benefited from unified and cohesive command, while the opposing forces were led by allied princes who argued among themselves over matters of strategy and precedence. Their army was deployed near Megiddo, with a formidable ridge blocking the Egyptian approach. Had Tuthmosis taken either of the conventional routes, north or south around the ridge, the Canaanites would have been able to deploy against him in good time. Instead, he attempted a risky march through a narrow pass. Even a small blocking force could have successfully held the pass, but it had been left unguarded, perhaps due to problems within the Canaanite command structure. It was to be a fatal mistake on the part of the Caananites

The Canaanite forces became disorganized as they redeployed, while the Egyptians formed up in a far more disciplined manner. The initial Egyptian attack took the form of a mass chariot charge that threw back the disordered Canaanites. Organized resistance was impossible and the Cannanite army rapidly collapsed. Many of the survivors took refuge in Megiddo itself, where they were besieged until the city fell several months later.

■ TUTHMOSIS’ SYRIAN CAMPAIGNS, C.1460 BCE
Tuthmosis III of Egypt undertook several campaigns into Syria, conquering numerous towns. These campaigns may have been supported by naval transport for supplies or even troops. The economies of Syria were left in ruins as a result, reducing the chances of a successful rebellion.

■ TUTHMOSIS’ CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE MITANNI, C.1458 BCE
The Egyptian army gained the advantage of surprise by carrying out what appeared to be merely another campaign in Syria, then suddenly marching to the Euphrates and crossing in boats they had carried with them. The Mitanni were totally unprepared and easily defeated.

■ FALL OF CRETE, C.1400 BCE
The Minoan civilization arose on the island of Crete around 2700 BCE. Around 1400 BCE, a series of natural disasters weakened the Minoans, whose culture was displaced by the more warlike Mycenean Greek civilization.

■ SUGAGI, C.1308 BCE
In the late Bronze Age, Babylonia was ruled by the Kassites, who conquered Assyria. Assyria rebelled and began to rebuild its power, leading to the battle of Sugagi, which established the border between the two states.

■ KADESH, 1294 BCE
Egyptian dominance over Canaan waxed and waned several times as Egypt both lost territory to rebellions and invasions, then retook it. The region was somewhat too remote to maintain permanent strong control, but too close to permit a foreign power to dominate. The increasing power of the Hittites, who originated north of Canaan, resulted in several clashes and, consequently, improvements in military technology. Among these developments was an improved axe with better performance against armour. Egyptian chariots were also made lighter and faster, permitting the chariot force to become an elite striking arm.

There was nothing new about conflict between the Egyptians and the Hittities. Indeed, among the opponents of Tuthmosis III at Megiddo were the Mitanni people, forerunners of the Hittites. Like the Egyptians, the Hittites had a centralized empire and a well-organized military. They also wanted dominance over Canaan and were willing to fight for it. Pharoah Ramses II marched through Sinai into Canaan with an army of some 20,000 men. This army was divided into four divisions, each with its own identity and command structure. The Pharoah’s bodyguard formed a separate body from the four main divisions and was held under his close command. The force also included significant numbers of mercenaries who were recruited partly to add fighting power and partly to deprive the enemy of using them.

The Egyptians at the time had a sophisticated system of intelligence gathering, using spies and agents who reported to officers trained to handle them. Information was obtained as the army advanced, though in this case it turned out to be faulty. Mutwallis, the Hittite king, had taken up position near Kadesh but sent men posing as deserters towards the advacing Egyptians. These men told Ramses that the main Hittite force was still distant. Seeing an opportunity for decisive victory, Ramses dispensed with reconnaissance and instead rushed forward to meet the enemy before they could be reinforced. He took with him only his bodyguard force and one 5000-man division, which reached Kadesh unopposed. The Hittites had concealed their force using the city as cover and launched a chariot strike against a second Egyptian division, which was moving up in support. This was routed, the survivors seeking safety with the Pharoah’s force. The Egyptian army came under severe pressure, with the Hittites blocking their line of retreat, but gained some respite when the Hittites paused to plunder their camp.

As the fighting became more confused, the Hittites failed to notice the approach of the other two 5000-strong Egyptian divisions and a force of mercenaries marching up from the coast. These divisions hit the Hittite flank and rear, taking the pressure off the Pharoah. Ramses took advantage of this opportunity to launch a disorganized counter-attack with his personal bodyguard in the lead. This decisive action rallied the wavering Egyptians, and it was the Hittite army that broke under the pressure. They fell back into Kadesh and took up defensive positions that Ramses judged his army was too weak to take by force. A peace treaty – the earliest known to history – was negotiated and both kings returned home to claim victory. The Egyptians could perhaps claim a narrow victory, but they had not achieved enough to change the strategic situation. The treaty did, however, secure the northern frontier against greater Hittite incursions and it prevented further conflict for a time.

■ DAPUR, 1269 BCE
Dapur was one of several rebel Canaanite cities recaptured by Pharoah Ramses II. He chose to use assault rather than siege tactics. Ladders were used to scale the walls while axe-armed troops broke through the gates.

■ SIEGE OF TROY, C.1184 BCE
It is thought that legends of the 10-year siege of Troy are based on historical events, though proof is sketchy. Traditionally, Troy was besieged by an alliance of Achaean Greeks who finally destroyed the city.

■ INVASION OF THE SEA PEOPLES, 1179 BCE
After sacking many cities around the eastern end of the Mediterranean, the Sea Peoples advanced on Egypt by sea and overland. The Pharoah constructed the world’s fir...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Maps
• Foreword to the Series
• Ancient Wars c.2500 BCE–500 CE
• Authors and Contributors
• How to Use the Maps
• Key to the Map Symbols
• Battles and Sieges Index
• General Index