Theology

The Basic Readings

Alister E. McGrath, Alister E. McGrath

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781119158189
• Edition: 3
• Topic: Theologie & Religion
• Subtopic: Christliche Theologie

This highly successful and popular book is now available in a thoroughly expanded and updated new edition. Alister E. McGrath, one of the world's leading theologians, provides readers with a concise and balanced introduction to Christianity as it has been interpreted by many of its greatest thinkers and commentators, from its beginning to the modern day.

Theology: The Basic Readings, 3 rd Edition comprises sixty-eight readings spanning twenty centuries of Christian history. To help readers engage with the material, each reading is accompanied by an introduction, comments, study questions, and a helpful glossary of terms used by its author.

• Readings are drawn from a broad theological spectrum and include both historical and contemporary, mainstream, and cutting-edge approaches
• Uses the Apostles' Creed as a framework to introduce readers to writings on key issues, such as faith, God, Jesus, creation, and salvation
• Represents two thousand years of sustained critical reflection within western Christianity
• Encourages readers to interact with each text and to engage with primary sources
• Serves as an ideal companion to the bestselling, Theology: The Basics or as a standalone text

Theology: The Basic Readings, 3 rd Edition is an essential guide to the topics, themes, controversies, and reflections on Christianity as they have been understood by many of its greatest commentators.

CHAPTER 1

Faith

What is faith? We have already seen that there are two senses of the word “faith”: a set of beliefs and an act of believing. This opening chapter considers some basic issues that lie behind any attempt to reflect on the contents of faith, including some reflections on the nature of faith, and the sources and methods that might be used to establish and explore basic Christian beliefs.

One of the central questions that will be considered in this opening chapter is how theology develops its ideas. Where do they come from? Traditionally, three main sources of Christian theology are recognized: the collection of texts usually known as “the Bible,” tradition, and reason. There is widespread agreement within the Christian tradition that the most fundamental source is the Bible. One of the most important questions in Christian theology therefore relates to the authority and interpretation of Scripture. (Note that many theological writings tend to use the term “Scripture” or “Holy Scripture” in preference to “the Bible,” even though these terms refer to exactly the same collection of writings.) Some of the readings assembled in this chapter deal directly with this issue.

However, from the earliest of times, it was realized that Scripture was open to a series of interpretations of varying degrees of reliability, some of which were not even remotely Christian. This insight is especially associated with the Gnostic controversies of the second century, during which Gnostic writers put forward some intensely speculative interpretations of Scripture. In response to this, writers such as Irenaeus emphasized the need to interpret Scripture within the bounds of the living tradition of the church. This led to growing interest in the way in which tradition was to be understood as a source for theology.

The role of reason has also featured prominently in Christian theological reflection. The early church witnessed an important discussion of the extent to which theology should interact with secular philosophy. This later developed into debates about whether the existence of God could be proved by an appeal to reason. The debate over the relation of faith and reason continues in contemporary theology, reflecting the church's ongoing dialogue with secular culture over the rationality of faith.

In this chapter, we shall consider a number of issues concerning the nature and sources of theology. We begin by looking at a classic discussion of the relation between Christian theology and secular philosophy, found in the writings of Augustine of Hippo.

1.1 Augustine of Hippo on the theological use of secular philosophy

One of the most divisive debates within early Christianity concerned the extent to which the church should make use of secular cultural ideas or values. It was a debate of immense significance, as it raised the question of whether Christianity would turn its back on the classical heritage, or appropriate it, even if in a modified form. As the Roman imperial authorities distrusted Christianity, often subjecting it to repressive controls, many early theologians saw little point in exploring this question. The third-century theologian Tertullian, for example, saw it as a waste of time. It is important to appreciate that Christianity had a decidedly ambiguous legal status in the Roman empire at this time. On the one hand, it was not legally recognized, and so did not enjoy any special rights; on the other, it was not forbidden. However, its growing numerical strength led to periodic attempts to suppress it by force. Sometimes these persecutions were local, restricted to regions such as North Africa; sometimes, they were sanctioned throughout the Roman empire as a whole.

Things changed with the conversion of the Roman emperor Constantine in 313, which opened the way to a much more positive evaluation of the relation of every aspect of Christian life and thought to classical culture. Rome was now the servant of the gospel; might not the same be true of its culture? If the Roman state could be viewed positively by Christians, why not also its cultural heritage? It seemed as if a door had opened upon some very interesting possibilities. Prior to 313, this situation could only have been dreamed of. After 313, its exploration became a matter of urgency for leading Christian thinkers – supreme among whom was Augustine of Hippo (354–430).

Widely regarded as the most influential Latin patristic writer, Augustine was converted to Christianity in the northern Italian city of Milan in the summer of 386. He returned to North Africa, and was made bishop of Hippo in 395. He was involved in two major controversies: the Donatist controversy, focusing on the church and sacraments; and the Pelagian controversy, focusing on grace and sin. He also made substantial contributions to the development of the doctrine of the Trinity, the Christian understanding of history, and – as in this passage – the theological appropriation of secular philosophy.

In his work On Christian Doctrine, Augustine argued for the “critical appropriation of classical culture.” For Augustine, the situation is comparable to Israel fleeing from captivity in Egypt at the time of the Exodus. Although they left the idols of Egypt behind them, they carried the gold and silver of Egypt with them, in order to make better and proper use of such riches, which were thus liberated in order to serve a higher purpose than before. In much the same way, the philosophy and culture of the ancient world could be appropriated by Christians, where this seemed right, and thus allowed to serve the cause of the Christian faith. Augustine clinched his argument by pointing out how several recent distinguished Christians had made use of classical wisdom in advancing the gospel.

If those who are called philosophers, particularly the Platonists, have said anything which is true and consistent with our faith, we must not reject it, but claim it for our own use, in the knowledge that they possess it unlawfully. The Egyptians possessed idols and heavy burdens, which the children of Israel hated and from which they fled; however, they also possessed vessels of gold and silver and clothes which our forebears, in leaving Egypt, took for themselves in secret, intending to use them in a better manner (Exodus 3:21–2; 12:35–6), not doing this on their own authority, but by the command of God. The Egyptians themselves, in their ignorance, thus provided them with things which they themselves were not using well. In the same way, pagan learning is not entirely made up of false teachings and superstitions, or heavy burdens of unnecessary difficulty, which every one of us, when going out under the leadership of Christ from the fellowship of the heathen, ought to abhor and avoid. It contains also some excellent teachings, well suited to be used by truth, and excellent moral values. Indeed, some truths are even found among them which relate to the worship of the one God. Now these are, so to speak, their gold and their silver, which they did not invent themselves, but which they dug out of the mines of the providence of God, which are scattered throughout the world, yet which are improperly and unlawfully prostituted to the worship of demons. The Christian, therefore, can separate these truths from their unfortunate associations, take them away, and put them to their proper use for the proclamation of the gospel. We must also take their “garments” – that is, human institutions such as are adapted to human relationships which are indispensable in this life – and put them to a Christian use.

What else have many good and faithful people from amongst us done? Look at the wealth of gold and silver and clothes which Cyprian – that eloquent teacher and blessed martyr – brought with him when he left Egypt! And think of all that Lactantius brought with him, not to mention Marius Victorinus, Optatus and Hilary of Poitiers, and others who are still living! And look at how much the Greeks have borrowed! And before all of these, we find that Moses, that most faithful servant of God, had done the same thing: after all, it is written of him that “he was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22). Pagan superstition (especially in those times when, kicking against the yoke of Christ, it was persecuting the Christians) would never have allowed us access to those branches of knowledge it held useful, if it had suspected they were about to hand them over to the use of worshipping the One God, and thereby overturning the vain worship of idols. But they gave their gold and their silver and their garments to the people of God as they were going out of Egypt, not knowing how the things they gave would be turned to the service of Christ. For what was done at the time of the exodus was no doubt a type, prefiguring what happens now.

Read the text slowly. Note how Augustine adopts a critical yet positive attitude to philosophy. It asserts some things which are true, and others which are false. It cannot be totally rejected on the one hand; on the other, neither can it be uncritically accepted.

Augustine affirms that Christians are free to make use of philosophical ideas, which can be detached from their pagan associations. Augustine's argument is that philosophical ideas can be extricated from their historical associations with the pagan culture which persecuted earlier generations of Christians. Although this persecution had ended nearly a century before Augustine's time, it was still an important theme in Christian thinking. Augustine's approach allowed a more positive attitude to the ideas and values of secular culture to be adopted.

Finally, notice how Augustine appeals to a series of distinguished Christians who were converted to Christianity from paganism, yet were able to make good use of their pagan upbringing in serving the church. Cyprian is of especial importance for Augustine, in that Cyprian had been martyred by the Romans in the third century. The fact he had made use of philosophy in this way is seen by Augustine as an important confirmation of his basic approach.

1.2 Vincent of Lérins on tradition and theology

The word “tradition” comes from the Latin term traditio which bears such senses as “handing over,” “handing down,” or “handing on.” At one level, it is a thoroughly biblical idea. Paul reminded his readers that he was handing on to them core teachings of the Christian faith which he had received from others (1 Corinthians 15:1–4). The term can refer both to the action of passing teachings on to others – something which Paul insists must be done within the church – and to the body of teachings which are passed on in this manner. Tradition can thus be understood as a process as well as a body of teaching. The Pastoral Epistles in particular stress the importance of “guarding the good deposit which was entrusted to you” (2 Timothy 1:14).

If any controversy served to emphasize the importance of tradition, it was the Gnostic debates of the second century. Faced with repeated assertions from his Gnostic critics that he had misrepresented the Bible, Irenaeus of Lyons (ca. 130–ca. 200) argued that they had simply chosen to interpret the Bible according to their own taste. What had been handed down, he insisted, was not merely the biblical texts, but a certain way of reading and understanding those texts.

Irenaeus’ point is that a continuous stream of Christian teaching, life, and interpretation can be traced from the time of the apostles to his own period. The church is able to point to those who have maintained the teaching of the church, and to certain public standard creeds which set out the main lines of Christian belief. This, he argues, contrasts with the secret and mystical teaching of the Gnostics, which is not available for public inspection, and which cannot be traced back to the apostles themselves. Tradition is thus the guarantor of faithfulness to the original apostolic teaching, a safeguard against the innovations and misrepresentations of biblical texts on the part of the Gnostics.

This point was further developed in the early fifth century by Vincent of Lérins, who was concerned that certain doctrinal innovations were being introduced without adequate reason. Writing in the year 434, Vincent (who died at an unknown date before 450) expressed his belief that the controversies of his age had given rise to dangerous theological innovations. But how could such doctrinal innovations be identified as such? There was a need to have public standards by which such doctrines could be judged. So what standard was available, by which the church could be safeguarded from such errors? For Vincent, the answer was clear – tradition.

Developing this point, Vincent set out a triple criterion by which authentic Christian teaching may be established: universality (being believed everywhere), antiquity (being believed always), and consensus (being believed by all people).

Therefore I have devoted considerable study and much attention to enquiring, from men of outstanding holiness and doctrinal correctness, in what way it might be possible for me to establish a kind of fixed and, as it were, general and guiding principle for distinguishing the truth of the catholic faith from the depraved falsehoods of the heretics. And the answer I receive from all can be put like this: if I or anyone else wishes to detect the deceits of the heretics or avoid their traps, and to remain healthy and intact in a sound faith, we ought, with the help of the Lord, to strengthen our faith in two ways; first, by the authority of the divine law, and then by the tradition of the catholic church.

Now at this point someone may ask: since the canon of the scriptures is complete, and is in itself adequate, why is there any need to join to its authority the understanding of the church? Because Holy Scripture, on account of its depth, is not accepted in a universal sense. The same statements are interpreted in one way by one person, in another by someone else, with the result that there seem to be as many opinions as there are people. […] Therefore, on account of the number and variety of errors, there is a need for someone to lay down a rule for the interpretation of the prophets and the apostles in such a way that is directed by the rule of the catholic church.

Now in the catholic church itself the greatest care is taken that we hold that which has been believed everywhere, always, and by all people [quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est]. This is what is truly and properly catholic. This is clear from the force of the word and reason, which understands everything universally. We shall follow “universality” in this way, if we acknowledge this one faith to be true, which the entire church confesses throughout the world. We affirm “antiquity” if we in no way depart from those understandings which it is clear that the greater saints and our fathers proclaimed. And we follow “consensus” if in this antiquity we follow all (or certainly nearly all) the definitions of the bishops and masters.

So what should a catholic Christian do if a small part of the church cuts itself off from the communion of the universal faith? Surely the soundness of the whole bo...