Culture and Crisis Communication

Transboundary Cases from Nonwestern Perspectives

Amiso M. George, Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo, Amiso M. George, Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo

• Publisher: Wiley-IEEE Press
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN: 9781119009757
• eBook ISBN: 9781119081883
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Communication Studies
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

A collection of case studies from nonwestern countries that offers an analysis of the significant role culture plays in crisis communication

Culture and Crisis Communication presents an examination of how politics, culture, religion, and other social issues affect crisis communication and management in nonwestern countries. From intense human tragedy to the follies of the rich, the chapters examine how companies, organizations, news outlets, health organizations, technical experts, politicians, and local communities communicate in crisis situations. Taking a wider view than a single country's perspective, the text contains a cross-cultural and cross-country approach. In addition, the case studies offer valuable lessons that organizations that wish to operate or are operating in those cultures can adopt in preparing and managing crises.

The book highlights recent crisis events such as Syria's civil war, missing Malaysia Flight MH370, andJapan's Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant disaster. Each of the case studies examines how culture impacts communication and responses to crises.

Authoritative, insightful, and instructive, this important resource:

• Analyzes how nonwestern cultures respond to crises
• Covers therole of culture in crisis communication in recent news events
• Includes contributions from 18 international authors who provide insight on nonwestern culture and crisis communication

Written for communication professionals, academics, and students, Culture and Crisis Communication presents an insightful introduction to the topic of culture and crisis communication and then delves into illustrative case studies that explore intra-cultural and trans-boundary crisis communication.

Part I
Introduction

Setting the Scene 1
Communication, Culture and Crisis in a Transboundary Context

Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo and Amiso M. George

Chapter Preview

As international crises increasingly dominate the news headlines, it is imperative to examine how crises are communicated and perceived from a viewpoint that is often ignored in most crisis literature—the nonwestern perspective. This book, Culture and Crisis Communication: Transboundary Cases from Nonwestern Perspectives, attempts to fill that gap by examining the role that culture plays in crisis communication in nonwestern settings. Considering the emergence of new spheres of power in the form of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) and other emerging economic powers that are not western countries, this book is timely.

Also, the responses to major crises that have rocked different parts of the world in the last few years—including the disappearance of Malaysia Airline (MH370), the Boko Haram kidnapping of nearly 300 school girls in Nigeria, the mass migration of refugees from the ongoing Syrian war and others, by both western and nonwestern societies—illustrate the importance of examining crisis communication from standpoints that are nonwestern. The responses also reinforce the assertion that crises are becoming more transboundary than in the past.

After reading this chapter, you will be able to

• Understand what crisis is, as well as the definition of crisis that we have adopted in this book
• Define more deeply what culture is, and the definition of culture that we have adopted in this book
• Review our definition of transboundary, as applied in this book
• Comprehend the argument for understanding the role of culture in crisis communication
• Assess the importance of looking at cases from a transboundary perspective
• See an overview of all the chapters and how the rest of the volume is organized

Introduction: An Ever-Intertwining World

In a world where there is increasing interdependence of countries, and one in which globalization and technological advancements have made it possible for almost anyone to witness, report on, and/or experience what is happening elsewhere irrespective of location and time, local issues can instantly become internationalized and international issues can become localized in the same way. An issue or crisis that might seem to be a problem for one country or local setting can become a matter of global concern and spawn serious consequences for many who at first glance may have thought themselves far removed from the particular issue or crisis. This situation is exemplified by events that have happened in different parts of the world over the past decade, and how various countries have responded. In some cases, countries have responded in a certain way, only to be forced later to deal with unforeseen consequences, usually borne out of the deeply entrenched differences that are a function of different worldviews or cultural positioning.

The wave of Syrian and other refugees moving to Europe in 2015 was initially welcomed by most countries—Germany alone took in 800,000 in 2015; Sweden accepted 160,000; and Austria, Hungary, and Denmark also took in tens of thousands. While the numbers keep fluctuating based on the numbers that apply for asylum or turned back at original entry countries, the welcome carpet is being withdrawn as news reports indicate a clash of cultures. At a 2015 traditional New Year’s Eve event in Cologne for instance, police reported that about 80 German women were sexually assaulted and robbed by men who were allegedly of Arab or North African extraction [1]. Other reports of assault at the city’s central train station were also recorded. Swedish media reported an unprecedented onslaught of pickpockets and vagrants described as North Africans at Stockholm’s central train station. While the government response has been to suspend acceptance of additional refugees (Germany), propose a repatriation (Sweden), seize assets to pay for their upkeep (Denmark), and build fences (Hungary), local groups have taken it upon themselves to demonstrate their displeasure with the influx of refugees whose culture they consider as fundamentally different from theirs and has the potential of creating serious social and political problems in future. An example occurred in Sweden’s Stockholm central train station where members of a large masked gang distributed flyers calling for the expulsion of foreigners and physically attacked “foreign” looking persons. They reportedly justified the attacks as revenge for a 15-year-old Somali refugee who fatally stabbed a Swedish refugee worker [2].

Media pundits argue that these reports illustrate a glimpse of Europe’s future if the refugees are not assimilated into European culture. Even Angela Merkel, the Chancellor of Germany as of this writing, has stepped backed from her open door policy. In a reversal of previous statements, she contends that refugees will be expected to return to their countries after the war; but, not all Germans are that patient. The outcome of a March 2016 regional election in Germany shows the anti-immigrant Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) Party gaining influence [3]. At the core of all of these statements, activities, and confusion is culture. So, what is culture?

Culture, Crisis, and Transboundariness

Many definitions of culture abound, but a few will suffice here. Culture is the traditional shared behavior of any society, race, or people at a particular time. It includes values, customs, beliefs, and attitudes; it is communicated through generations via language, objects, ritual, institutions, and art. It is also transmitted through learned and shared assumptions, beliefs, attitudes, values, knowledge, norms, clothing, language, and more [4]. As Hofstede [5] aptly puts it, culture is the “collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another.” Schein [6] compares culture to an iceberg, arguing that culture exists in layers, with the first invisible layer found just beneath the surface. This first layer is that of values or that which we believe is important and the deepest layer—that of fundamental belief—is the one most difficult to observe, measure, or change.

The refugee crisis in Europe highlights the intersection of culture and crisis on many levels. While research on impact of culture on communications features much of Geert Hofstede’s seminal work on theory of cultural dimensions, studies on the impact of culture on crisis is gaining grounds [7]. The Toyota recalls, Volkswagen scandal, BP Deepwater Horizon, Nigeria’s Shell Oil crisis, Malaysia Airline crisis, and many others illustrate not just the influence of culture on crisis communication in global environments, but also the transboundary nature of crisis. We use the term transboundary here to imply the crossing of inter- and intranational boundaries where there are significant geopolitical, cultural, religious, ideological, and socioeconomic differences which are significant enough and easily discernible with set systems based on both formal and informal patterns of observation. In other words, we acknowledge that boundaries can exist both within and outside geopolitical entities or countries.

Threats such as “Terrorist attacks, water shortages, critical infrastructure failures, unexpected flows of illegal immigrants, progressive climate change, and new pandemics” would overwhelm countries and turn into crises that would challenge even the best organized government.

Boin and Rhinard [8] describe transboundary threat as that “characterized by the potential to cross geographical and functional boundaries.” They argue that “these characteristics outstrip the capacity of nation-states and national bureaucracies that were designed to deal with more classic threats.” They further contend that threats such as “Terrorist attacks, water shortages, critical infrastructure failures, unexpected flows of illegal immigrants, progressive climate change, and new pandemics” [8] would overwhelm countries and turn into crises that would challenge even the best organized government. Using the European Union (EU) as an example, Boin and Rhinard not only identified the challenges of transboundary crisis management, but also opportunities therein. Their proposal to deal with such crises is for nations to collaborate and cooperate across their political, ideological, and geographic boundaries to respond to the crisis.

This book takes the Boin and Rhinard [8] concept a step further by examining transboundary crisis communication cases from a nonwestern perspective. Much of the international crises emanate from nonwestern countries, yet, there is a dearth of research on the topic.

Second, given the nature of current transboundary crises as mentioned by Boin and Rhinard and illustrated by recent humanitarian crises such as the refugee crisis in Europe, health scares such as the Ebola virus and Zika, corporate crisis such as Volkswagen and others, there is an urgency for case studies of transboundary crisis communication in nonwestern cultures. Whether one wishes to conduct business or research in a nonwestern culture, an understanding of the culture would enable the organization or individual to effectively navigate crises situations in that country.

Crisis, Communication, and Culture

The literature on crisis management and crisis communication suggests that there are many different definitions of what constitutes crisis but for our purposes here, we describe a crisis as a major occurrence that can potentially have a negative effect on the individual, organization, or industry experiencing it, as well as its publics, products, goods, services, and reputation [9]. By its very nature, a crisis unsettles and interrupts normal functioning and creates a sense of unease among some groups, at the very least [10]. Thus for many communicators, crisis and conflict situations are some of the hardest tests of ability and professional deontology [11] that they will ever face. This is because communication sits at the core in the hierarchy of “crisis issues” [12]. That means that (a) communication or the lack of it can cause crises, and (b) when crisis threatens or occurs, communication is central to averting, containing/resolving it, and/or leading the way to restoration.

For many communicators, crisis, and conflict situations are some of the hardest tests of ability and professional deontology that they will ever face.

The link between communication and crisis then, is not only obvious, but absolutely important in thinking about crisis and crisis planning. Within this mix is also culture, which can be seen in simple terms as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law customs and many other capabilities and habits acquired by the members of society” [13]. On the basis of that definition, one can argue that what constitutes crisis would necessarily be influenced by culture or cultural predilections, and so would communication about crisis since communication is an inevitable part of culture.

Indeed, available empirical evidence suggests that culture significantly affects the way people communicate [11, 14], and on that basis, various writers/scholars have suggested communication strategies to adopt or follow during conflict/crisis situations. While there are keen differences in these suggested strategies, what is common to all of them is the observation that during the elaboration process, knowing what the recipient/public/audience wants, what its social, professional, cultural, and psychological characteristics are and what its needs are, is germane to successful communication in that situation.

The implication here is that without in-depth knowledge and understanding of the cultural setting where a crisis situation has occurred, the crisis communication strategy stands the risk of not achieving its intended purpose [11]. While culture does not always readily provide us with an explanation of the main reasons why crisis erupt and how they evolve, including cultural dimensions in crisis management thinking is a very positive step. An approach that takes cultures into consideration has great potential for achieving long-term and sustainable outcomes in crisis communication plans [11].

From a transboundary perspective then, culture is even more significant in the sense that it is responsible for the differences in the collective programming of the mind, which ultimately results in significant differences in ways of perceiving, knowing, and being.

From a transboundary perspective then, culture is even more significant in the sense that it is responsible for the differences in the collective programming of the mind [5], which ultimatel...

Table of contents

• Cover
• IEEE Press
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Foreword
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Part I: Introduction
• Part II: Africa
• Part III: Asia/Euro-Asia
• Part IV: Middle East
• Part V: Latin America
• Part VI: Conclusion
• Appendix A: Sample Crisis Plan
• Appendix B: Public Relations Crisis Tool Kit
• Appendix C: Administrative Crisis Response Scenario: Internal Facility Disaster
• Appendix D: Incident Report Form
• Appendix E: Holding Statement
• Appendix F: Initial Media Statement
• Appendix G: Crisis Communications Roles and Responsibilities
• Appendix H: Sample Media Contact Log
• Appendix I: Media Statement
• Appendix J: Key Message
• Index
• EULA