Organizational Design for Knowledge Management

Mona Ben Chouikha

• Publisher: Wiley-ISTE
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9781848219229
• eBook ISBN: 9781119277408
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Computer Science
• Subtopic: Information Technology
• Index: Computer Science

Information and communication technologies have increased their share of services in contemporary economic exchanges. We are witnessing a transformation of modern economies characterized by a predominant role of information and knowledge in the production of wealth. In order to make this intangible resource bear fruit, organizations are looking for ways, methods, procedures, processes and technical solutions to efficiently manage knowledge Within a framework of research into synergies and resource interdependence, organizations also rely on strategic alliances (joint venture), mergers or other legal forms of association that have an impact on knowledge management. This book explores the range of knowledge management techniques.

Part 1
A Systemic Approach to the Organization Based on Knowledge Management and its Tools

1
Theoretical Anchoring of Knowledge

Resource theory views knowledge as a strategic asset [GRA 91, BAR 91]. Knowledge resources, which are distributed throughout the organization and are difficult to identify and imitate, are likely to offer a long-lasting competitive edge if used properly [KOG 92, NON 95]. Hence, knowledge appears to be a crucial resource for the organization which needs to be maintained and developed.

Information technology (IT) – for example Internet, Intranet, data warehouses, document management, databases and Groupware – offers improved possibilities to better manage knowledge [ROB 00].

In this chapter, we present the general framework of the research and precisely define what it is that we understand by “knowledge”.

First, it is imperative to draw the distinction between the various concepts – data, information, know-how, skill and knowledge – because numerous authors present them as being interlinked but differentiated, while others treat them as being the same thing.

Then, given that learning is a means of acquiring and developing knowledge, and that it is inconceivable to study knowledge without making reference to learning, the second section of the chapter is given over to how to make the transition from individual learning to organizational learning.

Then, in the next few sections, we shall examine the main activities making up the process of knowledge management, the tools supporting knowledge management and the human groups that constitute vectors for the development of knowledge.

Finally, the last section of this chapter will deal with the concept of culture, its presence within organizations in a variety of forms and its connection with knowledge management.

1.1. Individual knowledge and skills

The development of individual knowledge takes place in accordance with the following continuum: data → information → knowledge → skill [PES 06].

1.1.1. Data

According to the Larousse dictionary, “data is a conventional representation of a piece of information”. In this definition, there is no intention or agenda inherent in data¹, which are codified in accordance with a convention, a natural language or a computer language. For example, when a transmitter uses a convention which the receiver does not understand, the message cannot be understood. According to Prax [PRA 00, PRA 07], data are discrete and objective facts resulting from an acquisition: a measurement taken by a natural or manmade instrument. They may be qualitative or quantitative and serve as the basis for reasoning or for other treatment processes.

1.1.2. Information

Larousse states that “information is any event, any fact, any judgment brought to the attention of a particular audience, of varying sizes, in the form of images, texts, discourse or sounds”. Information is a piece of data emitted by a transmitter, which makes a difference in that it can be interpreted and used by a receiver [BEN 08]. Indeed, for there to be information, the signal must be perceived and understood. The signal can also generate knowledge or help move forward in the solving of a problem [MAR 09]. In summary, “information is a difference which makes a difference” [BAT 08]. It is a means to construct knowledge, which is essentially linked to human action [NON 95].

Figure 1.1 illustrates the relations between the concepts of “data”, “information” and “knowledge”.

Figure 1.1. Data – information – knowledge

1.1.3. Knowledge

According to Larousse, “knowledge is what is acquired through study or practice”. Various definitions of knowledge have been put forward in the literature published hitherto. The most representative of these are presented in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1. The various definitions of knowledge

Authors	Definitions
Nonaka [NON 94]	Information is a medium necessary for the creation and formalization of knowledge, but information and knowledge are two representations which differ by virtue of where they are located: information is embedded in a message, whereas knowledge exists in human memory. All externalized knowledge becomes information, and all information, when it is interpreted and integrated by a human being, becomes knowledge. All the knowledge held by the individual can be used to help interpret the information received.
Davenport et al. [DAV 98b]	Knowledge is information combined with experience, context, interpretation and reflection.
Alavi and Leidner [ALA 01]	On the one hand, knowledge is personalized information, linked to facts, procedures, concepts, interpretations, ideas, observations and judgments. On the other hand, it is the result of a cognitive process.
Carlile [CAR 02a]	Knowledge is a resource which is both critical and difficult to manage. At once, it may be a source of and a barrier to innovation.

In the domain of knowledge management, numerous authors agree that knowledge is different from data, information and skill [BOH 94, VAN 97, FAH 98, PRA 00]. Indeed, knowledge is a more complex notion, in that it simultaneously expresses that which is known and the capacity to make use of that information: savoir-faire (or “know-how”).

Knowledge is a set of schemas – that is dynamic cognitive structures pertaining to concepts, entities or events. These schemas, which are used by the individual to efficiently interpret information, guide the search for, acquisition of and processing of information. They also condition behavior in response to that information. Thus, schemas provide a ready-made system of knowledge. Knowledge is made up of routines which we are able to execute and rules of use indicating when and how to use those routines. More specifically, we can distinguish two types of knowledge: explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge:

• – Knowledge, be it explicit or formalized, can be transmitted without loss of integrity through written or oral discourse. For instance, formalized knowledge is the knowledge contained in books or delivered by educational systems. It may just as well be a blueprint or a procedural manual as the content of a database. This codified knowledge can be described and specified in terms of content and intellectual property [COW 97]. It can also be sequential, digital and rationality based, according to Nonaka and Takeuchi [NON 95].
• – Tacit knowledge, which is difficult or even impossible to express in a discourse, is not communicated through language. Usually acquired through practice, tacit knowledge often corresponds to contextual situations, to values and implicit standards. This practical knowledge exists at individual level (as an individual’s savoir-faire) and collective level (e.g. the routines used in the organization and arising from repeated practice). The essential characteristic of tacit knowledge is that it is difficult to pass on, because it is hard to separate the knowledge from the knowledge holder and from its use context. It is acquired through imitation and/or experimentation in a certain context. As specified by Nonaka [NON 94], tacit knowledge includes cognitive elements, schemas, beliefs and mental models defining our view of things and technical elements corresponding savoir-faire anchored in specific contexts of action. Polanyi [POL 67] explains that tacit knowledge is personal, closely linked to a given context and, therefore, difficult to transfer.

In Polanyi’s view, the tacit and explicit dimensions coexist within any piece of knowledge. The tacit knowledge forms the background which is indispensable to define the structure necessary for the development and interpretation of the explicit knowledge.

This duality (tacit and explicit), introduced by Polanyi [POL 67], has been drawn upon by many authors in discussing the more or less communicable nature of knowledge. For example, Nonaka [NON 91] proposed a dynamic model of the conversion of knowledge from a tacit ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Table of Contents
• Title
• Copyright
• Introduction
• Part 1: A Systemic Approach to the Organization Based on Knowledge Management and its Tools
• Part 2: Emergence of a New Design: that of the Learning Organization
• Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Index
• End User License Agreement