Handbook of Graphene, Volume 1

Growth, Synthesis, and Functionalization

Edvige Celasco, Alexander N. Chaika

• Publisher: Wiley-Scrivener
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN:
  9781119468554
• Edition: 1
• eBook ISBN:
  9781119468615
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Materials Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

This unique multidisciplinary 8-volume set focuses on the emerging issues concerning graphene materials and provides a shared platform for both researcher and industry.

The Handbook of Graphene comprises a set of 8 individual volumes that brings an interdisciplinary perspective to accomplish a more detailed understanding of the interplay between the synthesis, structure, characterization, processing, applications and performance of the advanced materials. The Handbook of Graphene comprises 140 chapters from world renowned experts.

Volume 1 is solely focused on Growth, Synthesis, and Functionalization of Graphene. Some of the important topics include but not limited to: Graphite in metallic materials-growths, structures and defects of spheroidal graphite in ductile iron; synthesis and quality optimization; methods of synthesis and physico-chemical properties of fluorographenes; graphene-SiC reinforced hybrid composite foam: response to high strain rate deformation; atomic structure and electronic properties of few-layer graphene on SiC(001); features and prospects for epitaxial graphene on SiC; graphitic carbon/graphene on Si(111) via direct deposition of solid-state carbon atoms: growth mechanism and film characterization; chemical reactivity and variation in electronical properties of graphene on Ni(111) and reduced graphene oxide; chlorophyll and graphene: a new paradigm of biomimetic symphony; graphene structures: from preparations to applications; three-dimensional graphene-based structures: production methods, properties and applications; electrochemistry of graphene materials; hydrogen functionalized graphene nanostructure material for spintronic application; the impact of uniaxial strain and defect pattern on magnetoelectronic and transport properties of graphene; exploiting graphene as an efficient catalytic template for organic transformations: synthesis, characterization and activity evaluation of graphene-based catalysts; exfoliated graphene based 2D materials; synthesis and catalytic behaviors; functionalization of graphene with molecules and/or nanoparticles for advanced applications; carbon allotropes "between diamond and graphite": how to create semiconductor properties in graphene and related structures.

Chapter 1
Graphite in Metallic Materials Growths, Structures, and Defects of Spheroidal Graphite in Ductile Iron

Jingjing Qing^1* and Mingzhi Xu²

¹Manufacturing Engineering Department, Georgia Southern University, Georgia, GA, USA

²Mechanical Engineering Department, Georgia Southern University, Georgia, GA, USA

^*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

Carbon is an important alloying element in the metallic system. Carbon may form graphite particles as a constituent phase in the metallic materials, such as cast irons, nickel alloys, and cobalt alloys. Graphite particles of various morphologies were found in these alloys. Some common morphologies include flake, spherical, and vermicular. Graphite particles of different morphologies offer the alloys unique mechanical and thermal properties. Graphite particles in the metallic systems are generally polycrystalline, which have complex internal substructures separated by crystallographic defects. The graphite particle morphology is a result of crystallographic defects in a particle, depending on the growth mechanism of the particle. A spheroidal graphite particle was bounded with the iron matrix by the basal planes along the surface of the spheroid, with their c-axis approximately parallel to the radial directions. Circumferential growth of basal planes along prismatic directions extends a graphite nodule. Crystallographic defects are essential components to accommodate the curvature in a spheroidal graphite. In this chapter, the crystallographic defects that contribute to graphite morphology accommodation will be introduced, and possible crystallographic defects associated with hexagonal–rhombohedral graphite structure transition will be discussed. These crystallographic defects include but are not limited to c-axis rotation fault, twining/tilt boundary, and stacking fault.

Keywords: Spheroidal graphite, growth stages, structure, crystallographic defects, curvature accommodation, transmission electron microscope, ductile iron, solidification

1.1 Graphite in Cast Irons

Carbon is an important alloy element in the metallic alloys. Carbon may be in the form of graphite in some metallic alloys, such as Fe–C alloys, Ni–C alloys, and Co–C alloys [1–3].

Cast iron is an important member of Fe–C alloy family. Cast irons generally contain over 2 wt.% carbon and 1–4 wt.% silicon [4]. Silicon is used in the cast irons to stabilize the graphite phase. In the graphitic cast irons, part of the carbon is in the form of graphite particles. Graphite particles in the cast iron nucleate on the heterogeneous nuclei, which are introduced through the addition of inoculant (ferrosilicon alloy containing various other elements depending on the type of the cast iron [4, 5]). During the solidification of Fe–C–Si alloys, graphite is the stable eutectic phase, and the carbide is the metastable eutectic phase. Metastable carbide forms under a high cooling rate or with high concentration of carbide stabilizing elements like chrome and tellurium [4]. In general, solidification and chemical composition of graphitic cast irons must be carefully controlled, in order to avoid formation of brittle carbide.

The graphite phase in the cast irons may exhibit several different morphologies including flake, spheroidal/nodular, vermicular, chunky, and exploded, depending on the cooling condition and the composition of the alloy [4, 6–8]. The most common morphologies are spheroidal, flake, and vermicular in the commercial cast irons, as shown in Figure 1.1. Cast irons are classified based on their microstructures, mainly by the form of the carbon [4]. It is crucial to control the graphite morphology in the cast irons in order to achieve the desired properties.

Figure 1.1 Examples of common graphite morphologies (as highlighted by arrows) in the cast irons: (a) spheroidal graphite particles in ductile iron; (b) flake graphite particles in gray iron; (c) vermicular graphite particles in compacted graphite iron.

It has been so well established that the alkaline earth metals (e.g., magnesium and calcium) and the rare earth metals (e.g., cerium and lanthanum) can promote a spheroidal graphite morphology in cast irons [7]. An elevated concentration of spheroidizing elements like Mg or Ce can accomplish the morphology change from a flake to a compacted shape, then to a spheroidal [4]. The most commonly used element in the production of ductile iron with spheroidal graphite is magnesium. However, the spheroidal graphite morphology will degenerate at the presence of anti-spheroidizing elements, such as titanium, arsenic, bismuth, and tellurium [4, 6].

1.1.1 Spheroidal Graphite in Ductile Iron

Cast iron with the graphite in spheroidal/nodular morphology is known as the ductile iron, and it is so called because of its high ductilit...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Preface
• Chapter 1: Graphite in Metallic Materials Growths, Structures, and Defects of Spheroidal Graphite in Ductile Iron
• Chapter 2: Graphene—Synthesis and Quality Optimization
• Chapter 3: Methods of Synthesis and Physicochemical Properties of Fluorographenes
• Chapter 4: Graphene–SiC Reinforced Hybrid Composite Foam: Response to High Strain Rate Deformation
• Chapter 5: Atomic Structure and Electronic Properties of Few-Layer Graphene on SiC(001)
• Chapter 6: Features and Prospects for Epitaxial Graphene on SiC
• Chapter 7: Graphitic Carbon/Graphene on Si(111) via Direct Deposition of Solid-State Carbon Atoms: Growth Mechanism and Film Characterization
• Chapter 8: Chemical Reactivity and Variation in Electronic Properties of Graphene on Ni(111) and Reduced Graphene Oxide
• Chapter 9: Chlorophyll and Graphene: A New Paradigm of Biomimetic Symphony
• Chapter 10: Graphene Structures: From Preparations to Applications
• Chapter 11: Three-Dimensional Graphene-Based Structures: Production Methods, Properties, and Applications
• Chapter 12: Electrochemistry of Graphene Materials
• Chapter 13: Hydrogen Functionalized Graphene Nanostructure Material for Spintronic Application
• Chapter 14: The Impact of Uniaxial Strain and Defect Pattern on Magnetoelectronic and Transport Properties of Graphene
• Chapter 15: Exploiting Graphene as an Efficient Catalytic Template for Organic Transformations: Synthesis, Characterization and Activity Evaluation of Graphene-Based Catalysts
• Chapter 16: Exfoliated Graphene-Based 2D Materials: Synthesis and Catalytic Behaviors
• Chapter 17: Functionalization of Graphene with Molecules and/or Nanoparticles for Advanced Applications
• Chapter 18: Carbon Allotropes, Between Diamond and Graphite: How to Create Semiconductor Properties in Graphene and Related Structures
• Index
• End User License Agreement