The Psychology of Human Sexuality

Justin J. Lehmiller

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781119164708
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Human Sexuality in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

New edition of an authoritative guide to human sexual behavior from a biopsychosocial perspective

The thoroughly revised and updated second edition of The Psychology of Human Sexuality explores the roles that biology, psychology, and the social and cultural context play in shaping human sexual behavior. The author – a noted authority on the topic and an affiliate of the acclaimed Kinsey Institute - puts the spotlight on the most recent research and theory on human sexuality, with an emphasis on psychology.

The text presents the major theoretical perspectives on human sexuality, and details the vast diversity of sexual attitudes and behaviors that exist in the modern world. The author also reviews the history of sexology and explores its unique methods and ethical considerations. Overall, this important and comprehensive text provides readers with a better understanding of, and appreciation for, the science of sex and the amazing complexity of human sexuality.

• Features broad coverage of topics including anatomy, gender and sexual orientation, sexual behaviors, sexual difficulties and solutions, prostitution, and pornography
• Offers more in-depth treatment of relationships than comparable texts, with separate chapters dealing with attraction and relationship processes
• Includes cutting-edge research on the origins of sexual orientation and gender identity, as well as new treatments for sexually transmitted infections and sexual dysfunctions
• Is written from a sex-positive perspective, with expanded coverage of cross-cultural research throughout and material that is inclusive and respectful of a diverse audience
• Includes numerous activities to facilitate dynamic, interactive classroom environments

Written for students of human sexuality and anyone interested in the topic, The Psychology of Human Sexuality offers a guide to the psychology of human sexual behavior that is at once inclusive, thorough, and authoritative in its approach.

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Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality

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CHAPTER OUTLINE

• Introduction
• What Drives Us to Have Sex?
  • Psychological Influences
  • Cultural and Societal Influences
  • Biological and Evolutionary Influences
• Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality
  • Psychoanalytic Theory
  • Cognitive-Behavioral and Learning Theories
  • Exchange Theories
  • Personality Theories
  • Evolutionary Theory
• The Perspective of This Text

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Introduction

For centuries, societies around the world defined sex as just one thing: penis-in-vagina intercourse within the context of marriage for the purpose of procreation. Any other form of genital stimulation was not only viewed as sinful, but it could potentially get you thrown in jail or, in some cases, put to death. In stark contrast to this view, the concept of sex in modern times has been significantly expanded, and sexual activity has become quite complex. For instance, “sex” now refers to a wide range of behaviors, including everything from mutual masturbation to oral, vaginal, and anal stimulation, not to mention things like “sexting” and phone sex. Sexual activity today is no longer legally or morally restricted to traditional heterosexual marriage either; sex occurs between unmarried romantic partners, “friends with benefits,” and people of varying sexual orientations. Furthermore, sexual acts can serve a wide range of purposes, with procreation being just one possibility. In fact, in a study in which people were asked why they have sex, participants reported 237 distinct reasons for “getting it on” (Meston & Buss, 2007)! The most commonly cited reasons for both men and women included feeling attracted to another person, wanting to have fun or experience physical pleasure, and wanting to show affection or love for someone else. The least common reasons included making money, punishing oneself, wanting to give a sexually transmitted disease to another person, and feeling closer to God. This immense variation in sexual activities, relationships, and motivations means that understanding sex in today's world is a complicated task. The goal of this chapter is to give you the theoretical foundation necessary for appreciating the complexities and intricacies of modern human sexuality from a psychologist's perspective.

As a starting point, it is useful to acknowledge that every single sexual act is the result of several powerful forces acting upon one or more persons. These forces include our individual psychology, our genetic background and evolved history, as well as the current social and cultural context in which we live. Some of these influences favor sexual activity, whereas others oppose it. Whether sex occurs at any given moment depends upon which forces are strongest at the time.

Let us consider in more detail some of these different forces and the ways they can impact human sexual decision making and behavior. Following that, we will consider some of the dominant theoretical perspectives used by psychologists in understanding human sexuality, before ultimately presenting the model that we will use to organize the remaining chapters in this book.

What Drives Us to Have Sex?

The forces that interact to produce sexual behavior can be lumped into three broad categories: psychological variables, cultural and societal factors, and biological and evolutionary influences. We will consider each of these in turn, providing specific examples of some of the ways they can shape human sexuality.

Psychological Influences

An enormous number of psychological factors can affect sexual behavior, including our mood states, level of cognitive alertness, our attitudes toward sex and relationships, others' expectations for our behavior, as well as associations learned through reinforcement. Some of these factors are transitory, meaning they can change from moment to moment, whereas others are relatively stable characteristics we carry with us throughout our lives. Regardless of their stability, each of these psychological variables can promote or inhibit sexual behavior.

For instance, personality is a relatively stable individual characteristic that may affect both the nature and frequency of our sexual activities (e.g., Markey & Markey, 2007; Miller et al., 2004). To illustrate this idea, just imagine the types of sexual situations that a very extraverted thrill-seeker might get into compared to someone who is very introverted and likes to play it safe. Throughout this book, we will discuss many personality characteristics, from the Big Five to sensation-seeking to erotophilia, that can have a profound influence on our sex lives (all of these personality characteristics will be defined later in this chapter).

Learned associations are another relatively stable characteristic that can affect sexual behavior (e.g., Plaud & Martini, 1999). Each of us associates something different with sex, based upon our prior learning experiences. When someone believes that sexual behavior will be helpful in some way (e.g., because that person was previously rewarded with social acceptance for engaging in this activity), sex is more likely to occur. In contrast, when someone expects that sexual behavior might be harmful (e.g., if one's perceived risk of contracting a sexually transmitted infection (STI) appears high or if one's previous sexual experiences have been bad), sex is less likely to occur.

Likewise, if someone has a negative attitude toward sex or toward a given partner, the odds of sexual activity decrease; in contrast, positive attitudes are likely to increase sexual activity, even in cases where that person might not necessarily be “in the mood” (e.g., someone who is tired might not be particularly interested in sex, but could acquiesce to a partner's request for sex to make that partner happy).

Finally, one's current mood state is important as well—and this is one example of a psychological characteristic that varies from moment to moment in terms of the impact it has on sex. Another example along these lines would be level of cognitive distraction (Masters & Johnson, 1970). When someone is in a negative mood or is highly distracted, not only is that person likely to be less interested in sex but the sex that an individual has will probably be less satisfying; positive mood states and low levels of distraction tend to generate an opposite pattern of effects.

It is important to note that all of the effects discussed above are bidirectional (i.e., attitudes and mood states shape sexual behavior, but sexual behavior also shapes our attitudes and mood states, thereby creating a feedback loop). Moreover, keep in mind that these are just a few of the many ways that psychology and sexuality can intersect. Later in this chapter, we will explore several important theories that provide evidence of other, additional psychological variables that can affect sexuality. These include classical and operant conditioning, observational learning, and social exchange, among others.

Cultural and Societal Influences

The cultural and societal context in which we live plays a large role in determining sexual behavior. Virtually all societies around the world regulate sexuality in one form or another (DeLamater, 1987), effectively establishing standards for sexually “normal” and “deviant” behaviors among certain groups of people. However, there is huge variability in these standards. For instance, although most industrialized societies today have established a norm of sexual monogamy, there are other cultures that not only permit, but explicitly encourage a free exchange of s...