A Companion to the History of American Science

Georgina M. Montgomery, Mark A. Largent, Georgina M. Montgomery, Mark A. Largent

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2015
• Print ISBN:
  9781119130703
  9781405156257
• Edition: 1
• eBook ISBN:
  9781119072232
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Science History
• Index: History

A Companion to the History of American Science offers a collection of essays that give an authoritative overview of the most recent scholarship on the history of American science.

• Covers topics including astronomy, agriculture, chemistry, eugenics, Big Science, military technology, and more
• Features contributions by the most accomplished scholars in the field of science history
• Covers pivotal events in U.S. history that shaped the development of science and science policy such as WWII, the Cold War, and the Women's Rights movement

Part I
Disciplines

Chapter One
Agricultural Sciences

Samantha Noll

Agricultural science may have begun with the Hatch Act of 1887 and the birth of the US land-grant universities in 1862 (Hillison 1996). Actually, it is one of the oldest applications of empirical inquiry, as our current methods of agriculture are the result of thousands of years of trial and error and experimentation in the field. Farming methods slowly improved as humans developed better ways of obtaining reliable knowledge that they then applied. With that being said, however, agriculture science as we know it today really began to take shape between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, as the scientific methods born out of Enlightenment thinking were directly applied to farming practices. This form of applied science became institutionalized in the United States in the late nineteenth century with the birth of the land-grant universities in 1862, the establishment of federally funded experiment stations, and extension services meant to communicate scientific breakthroughs to the local farming community (Hillison 1996). This three-way partnership forms the backbone of current agricultural research in the United States (Rosenberg 1997). In point of fact, one could argue that it also forms the backbone of American industry, as technology and farming methods developed by these sciences both increased food supplies and lowered the numbers of workers needed to grow this food, thus providing the workers necessary for industrial development (Thompson and Noll 2014).

This chapter will begin with a brief definition of “agriculture.” Before outlining the many different types of agricultural sciences, it is important to recognize the scope of farming practices and thus the varied nature of scientific disciplines that focus on improving these practices. The next section provides a general overview of agricultural science by describing how agricultural science is not one science, but a multidisciplinary field that encompasses work from a multiplicity of scientific disciplines. The third section of the chapter describes the historical movements beginning during the seventeenth century that made the rise and dominance of American agricultural science possible. It then outlines the history of the development of agriculture science in the United States and how its structure of scientific inquiry differs in this context from that of Europe's. These latter two sections are particularly important, as many of the social consequences of agricultural research can be found in the early history of these sciences. In the final section, current critiques of these sciences are outlined before the chapter ends with a brief overview of agricultural science today.

Agriculture Defined

While agriculture is currently understood as the cultivation of food crops (such as corn, wheat, and soy), the practice also includes raising animals, plants, and other organisms for production and pharmaceutical purposes. The term covers a considerable amount of human activity, including animal husbandry, wine production, biofuel, dairy, hydroponics, and fiber crops, and activities associated with harvesting, distribution, and food processing (Thompson and Noll 2014). The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years and was largely a place-based practice, bound to specific areas, as the development of various methods of production, processing, and storage were influenced by vastly different climates, technological advances, cultural views, and values surrounding the cultivation of food. However, while farmers in disparate areas practiced diverse techniques and methods, most agricultural practices relied on basic activities of land and animal management that still underlie local differences, such as the practice of irrigation, maintaining the fertility of the soil, and general methods of farming, such as intercropping, grassland grazing, and terrace cultivation. Historically a large percentage of the population worked in agricultural production, but current technological developments have greatly reduced the numbers of people working in the field, especially in the United States (Lyson 2004). One such advancement was the development of large-scale monoculture farming, the most common form of field crop cultivation today. However, other forms are still being practiced, such as both large-scale and small-scale organic agriculture, livestock integrated systems, intensive small-scale operations, and traditional farming practices, such as the cultivation of milpa originally used throughout Mesoamerica.

Agriculture Science Defined

While agriculture refers to a set of methods or activities used to transform the environment for the production of the above products, the agricultural sciences are grounded in “the application of scientific methods of inquiry to improve the practice of agriculture” (Thompson and Noll 2014: 1021). Very roughly then, one can understand agriculture science as the use of scientific methods and methodologies to improve agriculture practices. Just as agricultural practices are varied, agricultural science can be understood as a multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses research in the natural and social sciences (Olmstead and Rhode 2008). Traditionally this work was carried out on a multiplicity of topics, such as production techniques, pest control, minimizing the effects of drought, food distribution, selective breeding of plants and animals, the design and implementation of sustainable production methods, and various social and economic topics surrounding food production, storage, and transportation. In the context of the United States, most agricultural research is made possible by, what David MacKenzie (1991) calls, a triangular partnership between farmers, government agencies that fund and sometimes conduct research, and commercial and non-profit public sector research institutions. This arrangement has lasted for over 100 years and has proven highly successful in supporting cutting-edge agricultural research.

Several fields fall under the umbrella of “agriculture science” including agricultural chemistry, economics, geography, philosophy, marketing, agrophysics, animal science, agronomy, aquaculture, biotechnology, microbiology, environmental science, entomology, food science, soil science, waste management, and ecology. Many of these fields focus on a single aspect of agriculture. In addition to being multidisciplinary, or a field that draws upon many distinct disciplines, it is important to note here that much of agriculture science is also interdisciplinary (Jacobs and Frickel 2009), or a field that integrates knowledge originally developed within distinct fields. In truth, the practice of agriculture by its very nature relies upon and integrates varied sources of knowledge as solving problems in agriculture or developing new methods of production, harvesting, and storage often require such integration. For example, an entomologist working on pest control may have expertise on insects but will often have to draw upon and incorporate knowledge from other fields, such as agronomy, ecology, or soil science to properly address the pest problem. Thus the term agriculture science is an umbrella term that encompasses work carried out by various disciplines and often across disciplines. For this reason, one can understand agricultural science to signify the entirety of the agricultural sciences that make up this branch inquiry. This chapter will use both terms interchangeably.

In addition, it should be noted here that agricultural sciences are largely applied sciences, in contrast to pure sciences, though not all research is applied in this field. As illustrated above, agricultural sciences are housed in many different departments, as they each draw upon scientific methods and methodologies developed within these fields. When applied to agricultural practices, such methods provide unique and novel insights. In contrast, pure sciences make deductions from mathematics, logic, and previously accepted facts in search of universally applied laws or fundamental principles (Rosenberg 1997). While agricultural sciences are applied sciences, most scientists working in these fields nevertheless accept that pure science is necessary for applied sciences to flourish, as findings in the more abstract sciences open up new avenues for research on the ground. For example, pure research in chemistry opened up the possibility for new fertilizers, and biological research in genetics paved the way for the creation of genetically modified organisms now used in agriculture.

Historical Roots of Agricultural Science

While the agricultural sciences began in earnest in the United States during the late nineteenth century with backing at both the state and national levels (Rosenberg 1997), improving various areas of agricultural practice through the application of components of the scientific method has a long history. Indeed, it is difficult if not impossible to separate the practice of agriculture from technological development and empirical inquiry. For example, Xenophon (c. 430–350 BCE) and Aristotle (384–322 BCE), whose texts are foundational in the development of the sciences, both wrote extensively on agriculture. In addition, Roman texts, such as Columella's (4–70 CE) 12 volumes on agriculture, give detailed descriptions of animal husbandry techniques, selective breeding programs for plants and animals, field crop cultivation methods, orchard management regimens, and descriptions of experiments conducted in these areas. The Romans, and before them the Greeks, used highly developed methods and specialized crops, such as those used for fodder, that were lost after the collapse of the Roman Empire and only rediscovered during the Renaissance (Kingsbury 2009). In truth, the rediscovery of these techniques coupled with the scientific, industrial, and agriculture revolutions of the eighteenth century formed the foundation for the current agricultural sciences that we practice today.

Scientific methodologies were applied to agricultural practices throughout the Enlightenment when the various revolutions listed above shifted people's reliance from tradition to the application of scientific methods and cultivated an insistence on change and progress. These factors powerfully influenced subsequent developments in agriculture and the structure of agricultural systems as a whole (Brantz 2011). According to Kingsbury (2009), the Scientific Revolution and industrial enlightenment combined to spur on agricultural developments that then further supported the other revolutions and spurred further research in agriculture. First, the Scientific Revolution was built upon the idea that the natural world is orderly (not controlled by capricious deities or inherently disorderly) and is thus knowable. Through scientific inquiry, it is possible to both obtain reliable knowledge about the world around us and to manage nature for the benefit of humans. The “industrial enlightenment” signifies the technological advances occurring in conjunction with the Scientific Revolution, including the codification of experiments and observations on agricultural techniques that were then made readily available to the intellectual community through translation and printed materials (Kingsbury 2009).

Beginning in the later half of the eighteenth century, the Agricultural Revolution was a culmination of the advancement in farming techniques that greatly increased the crop yields of the day (Kingsbury 2009). During this period, Europe reaped the benefits of the implementation of new agricultural practices, such as the enclosure of pastures, the introduction of hardier plant types, a new four-course rotation schedule (Kingsbury 2009), and the use of composted manures from city centers (Atkins 2012). It is estimated that the production of wheat went up from 19 bushels per acre during the early seventeenth century to over 30 bushels by 1840 (Snell 1985). Subsequent developments pushed these yields even higher, as the four-course rotation method produced on average 80% more food (Kingsbury 2009). Further developments in mechanization and plant breeding increased these yields even more. The subsequent availability of food supported further industrial development, as it freed people from the necessity of working on the land, and thus provided the population necessary for the Industrial Revolution.

In addition, the coupling of agricultural research with commercial interests during this time helped shift the reputation of agriculture, from a practice largely performed by the lower class, to the pursuit of landowners and the educated classes. This shift is directly reflected in the scholarly work of the time, as various philosophers, such as John Locke (1632–1704), Jeremy Bentham (1784–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) and economists Adam Smith (1723–1790) and Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) wrote extensively on agricultural practices, technology, and the social factors that influence or are influenced by crop production. In fact, foundational work in most if not all of the disciplines that make up the current agricultural sciences can be found during this time period. For example, the chemist Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), often considered the founder of agriculture science, wrote extensively on using controlled experiments to identify practices useful for improving soil fertility and crop yields; the agronomist Jethro Tull (1674–1741) published on tillage in 1733; and Thomas Jefferson discussed the role that agriculture should play in American higher education (Thompson and Noll 2014).

History of Agricultural Sciences in the United States

Like Europe, the United States began to reap the benefits of the implementation of agricultural research during this time. In this context, however, agricultural science became institutionalized in the late nineteenth century with the birth of land-grant universities in 1862 and the establishment of federally funded experiment stations (Hillison 1996). The first agricultural experiment station was established in Connecticut in 1875 (Rosenberg 1997). A little over a decade later, the Hatch Act provided each state with $15,000 a year to support local experiment stations. The act was passed due to increasing political pressure by the farming lobby and, as Rosenberg (1997) argues, the role of the experiment stations was clear from the beginning: “It was to perform the experiments which the individual farmer, lacking time and opportunity, could not” (p. 154). The average farmer did not have the time or the money to perform experiments in a systematic manner, as the loss of one season's crops could mean the loss of the farm itself. These two developments helped connect two parts of the triangular partnership (farmers, government agencies, and public sector research institutions) that, as MacKenzie (1991) argues, supported cutting-edge agricultural research in the United States for the last 100 years.

Agricultural experiment stations were placed directly under the control of states' land-grant universities that were originally established in 1862 under the Morrill Act (Thompson and Noll 2014). Land-grant universities provided education in agricultural practice, such as animal husbandry and field crop cultivation. Early in their development, the institutions embraced the agricultural sciences, as the application of the scientific method promised to both raise the status of the American farmer and improve the economic viability of farms (Rosenberg 1997). They conducted and continue to conduct research on a multiplicity of agricultural topics, such as soil fertility, cover crops, and farming methods, both at the university proper and at experiment stations. Similar to MacKenzie's (1991) triangular partnership, Rosenberg (1997) argues that the United States' early success in agricultural research was a result of a three-way partnership between universities, experiment stations, and extension services. The last of these was established to disseminate research results, such as new crop types, machinery, and cultivation methods, to the larger farming community (Thompson and Noll 2014). These extension services are state-operated and focus on providing information on advances important within regional contexts, providing training for farmers in all areas of practical farm management, and on recommending efficient fertilizer levels. Today, while the farming landscape has changed dramatically, the three-way partn...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Series
• Title page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Notes on Contributors
• Introduction The History of American Science
• Part I Disciplines
• Part II Topics
• Bibliography
• Index
• EULA