Peacemaking and the Challenge of Violence in World Religions

Irfan A. Omar, Michael K. Duffey, Irfan A. Omar, Michael K. Duffey

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781118953440
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Comparative Religion

Written by top practitioner-scholars who bring a critical yet empathetic eye to the topic, this textbook provides a comprehensive look at peace and violence in seven world religions.

• Offers a clear and systematic narrative with coverage of Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Native American religions
• Introduces a different religion and its sacred texts in each chapter; discusses ideas of peace, war, nonviolence, and permissible violence; recounts historical responses to violence; and highlights individuals within the tradition working toward peace and justice
• Examines concepts within their religious context for a better understanding of the values, motivations, and ethics involved
• Includes student-friendly pedagogical features, such as enriching end-of-chapter critiques by practitioners of other traditions, definitions of key terms, discussion questions, and further reading sections

1
Jihad and Nonviolence in the Islamic Tradition

Irfan A. Omar

The most excellent jihad is speaking a word of truth to a tyrant.

A Hadith of Prophet Muhammad (Hasan 1984)

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Islam’s Sacred Texts

The Qur’an: the compilation of revelations received by Muhammad over the period of 23 years (from 610–632 C.E.). The Qur’an contains 114 chapters (chapter is a loose translation of the word sura) with topics ranging from announcing God’s compassion and proximity to creation as well as his judgment and transcendence. The Qur’an also places great emphasis on human responsibility to nourish righteousness and promote justice on earth. One of the key themes in the Qur’an is to remind the reader of an enduring life after death.

The Hadith: the collection of sayings of Muhammad and reports of actions as observed by his companions. These were compiled by scholars and theologians roughly around two centuries after his death. There are six different collections that are recognized as authoritative.

The Shari‘a: this is generally translated as “law.” However, in its fundamental sense, it is a succinct version of the guidelines to live a life of faith distilled from the Qur’an and the Hadith. Shari‘a is based on the ethical and legal injunctions presented in a language of faith. It is formulated through the use of reason and by consensus of religious scholars. Every application of shari‘a guidelines is an act of interpretation based on specific context. A large part of the shari‘a deals with aspects concerning inheritance, marriage, divorce, and the practice of faith.

Creedal Statement – “the Shahadah”: There is no divinity except God (Allah), Muhammad is the messenger of God. Practicing Muslims recite the shahadah as a sign of their remembrance of God and their commitment to the practice of faith taught by Prophet Muhammad. It is recited in the ears of a newborn child as a symbolic gesture of her/his reception into the Muslim community.

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This chapter provides a concise description of Islam’s position on violence, nonviolence, and peacemaking. Although analysis is not entirely absent, the emphasis is placed on explaining the ideas on the subject found in the primary texts of Islam. First, I include a brief introduction to the faith tradition, its founder, Muhammad, and beliefs and practices most Muslims hold. The following section deals with ways of understanding violence and contextualizing “religious” violence. Here I have outlined the way the Qur’an speaks of and condemns violence while permitting it in exceptional circumstances as a last resort. The section on jihad considers the quranic understanding of this much misunderstood notion, and its subsequent ever-expanding meanings. The next section provides select sources for peace and nonviolence in the Qur’an and the Prophetic tradition. And finally, I have included a brief discussion of key Muslim thinkers and their contributions to Islamic nonviolence including their role in creating the discourse and providing models for nonviolent activism in the way of peace.

Overview of the Islamic tradition

Islam is a monotheistic religion that arose in Arabia in the early seventh century as a movement for social and spiritual reform. It began with Muhammad (571–632 C.E.), whom Muslims regard as a prophet who received revelations from God (Allah in Arabic) through the Archangel Gabriel. Muhammad, son of Abdullah, was born in Mecca and was brought up by his mother and grandfather, both of whom died while he was still young. His father had died just before Muhammad was born, thus his childhood was marred by the tragic experiences of the loss of these immediate relations. Muhammad’s uncle Abu Talib, a respected elder of the community, became his protector until the latter’s death in circa 620 C.E. These were some of the most difficult years for Muhammad, as the Meccan leaders were opposed to his preaching the message of monotheism. Hence besides the shock of experiencing a personal loss, the lack of his uncle’s patronage was deeply felt by Muhammad. In a tribal system, support of a tribal leader/elder was essential for an individual’s survival and success. Muhammad’s struggles as a prophet and as an activist for justice became even more difficult when, in the same year, he also lost his wife Khadijah, the mother of their only daughter, Fatima.

In the year 610 C.E., when Muhammad was 40, he received the call of prophethood as he meditated in seclusion inside a cave on Mount Hira. This call came in the form of his first divine revelations, which were given to him through the Archangel Gabriel, who would continue to serve as an intermediary between God and Prophet Muhammad throughout his ministry. This experience of an encounter with God mediated by the presence of Gabriel was traumatic for Muhammad, who at first was unsure and fearful. Through the confirmation he received from his wife, Khadija, and her Christian cousin, the aged priest Waraqa bin Nawfal, Muhammad gradually became confident that this was indeed a divine call for him to be the messenger of Allah.¹

Prophet Muhammad continued to receive revelations for over 22 years until his death in 632 C.E. These revelations were recited and memorized by his followers and were also written down during his lifetime. In the decades that followed, the revelations, which were already bound together, were copied and made available widely in Muslim communities. The Qur’an, as it is known, is the most widely read and revered book in the Muslim world. Muslims believe it to be the “final” and perfectly “preserved” revelation from God. The Qur’an is central to Islam and thus is sometimes compared with Christ as the embodiment of the divine Word. Thus it has been said that the Qur’an is to Islam what Christ is to Christianity (Ayoub 1984).

Even though the Qur’an is central in Islam, it reached Muslims through Muhammad since he was the first to receive these words. Thus Muhammad’s interpretation and application of the principles and teachings of the Qur’an are of great significance and value. For practicing Muslims, Prophet Muhammad provides an example for a simple and spiritual way of life. His actions and his relationships with others embody the ethics outlined in the Qur’an. For Muslims, he embodies the best practice of Islam as taught by the Qur’an. His words (excluding those which he recited saying “this is the revelation”) are preserved in what is known as the Hadith and are consulted for guidance on issues not found in the Qur’an.

Based on the teachings of the Qur’an, Muslims believe that human beings are born “pure” without any sin. The evil aspects of the world are the result of worldly influences and distractions acquired as part of becoming a person. These aspects include vices such as greed, lust for power, and jealousy, and can be removed by following universal ethical guidelines – the Islamic versions of which are presented in the Qur’an and the Hadith. These vices eventually lead human beings to commit violence against another and oneself. To protect oneself from these “unnatural” tendencies one must strive (do jihad) to resist the temporary appeal of self-centered existence. Islamic guidelines for a life of faith lived in awareness of God and through peaceful relations with others are found in the literature broadly known as the shari‘a, or “Islamic law.”

Islamic theology, in trying to balance between the notions of predestination and free will, informs us that in the end only God decides who will be able to resist the temptations and trials of this world and who will succumb to them. Thus what matters most in Islam is not mere beliefs but one’s sincere practice of faith. Etymologically Islam means “peaceful submission” or “commitment” to God, and a Muslim is one who acknowledges the need of such a submission and commits to required practices identified as the “Five Pillars” or acts of faith. The Five Pillars include the creedal statement, which acknowledges the one God (creator and sustainer of all) and recognizes Muhammad as a prophet of God (shahadah), ritual prayer five times a day (salah), fasting during Ramadan – the ninth month of the Islamic calendar (sawm), almsgiving (zakat) according to one’s ability, and pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) if one’s resources permit.

In Islam, God has no material representation, although the practice of making calligraphic imagery of the many names (also known as attributes) of God is fairly common and can be seen in mosques and in Muslim homes. Islam does not prescribe priesthood and there is no official clergy in Sunni Islam. However some of the roles that clergy play in some Christian denominations may be viewed as equivalent to the role played by the ‘ulama (religious scholars) in Muslim societies. The primary role of the ‘ulama is to strive (implies doing jihad) to understand, interpret, and teach the Qur’an (sacred scripture), the Hadith (reports of the words and actions of Prophet Muhammad), and shari‘a to others. The majority of Muslims in the world are Sunni but a smaller percentage belong to the second major branch of Islam known as Shi‘ism, which has a variety of leadership roles within the category of ‘ulama.

Muslims believe that the revelations God sent to Muhammad were in essence not unlike those that were sent to countless others throughout human existence. Muhammad, as he received these revelations, recited them to his followers many of whom memorized these verses. Later these were collected into one document (mushaf) and canonized as the sacred Qur’an (or “recitation”). Islam sees itself as a continuation of the Judeo-Christian heritage, leading some to argue that it would be better to regard this as a “Judeo-Christian-Islamic” heritage (Esposito 2002). Thus viewed through its original sources (the Qur’an and the Hadith), Islam does not regard itself as a “new” religion. It openly claims to continue in the path of earlier religious traditions, notably the Jewish and the Christian traditions. Muslims regard the Qur’an to be the final and definitive revelation given by God to his messenger, Muhammad, whom the Qur’an identifies as the “seal” of the prophets.

God is at the center of Islam, not Muhammad. Muslims believe in and pray to...