Beijing Opera Costumes

The Visual Communication of Character and Culture

Alexandra B Bonds

• Verlag: Routledge
• Jahr: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781351380454
• Auflage: 1
• Thema: Médias et arts de la scène
• Thema: Théâtre

Beijing Opera Costumes: The Visual Communication of Character and Culture illuminates the links between theatrical attire and social customs and aesthetics of China, covering both the theory and practice of stage dress. Distinguishing attributes include an introduction to the performance style, the delineation of the costume conventions, an analysis of the costumes through their historical precedents and theatrical modifications, and the use of garment shape, color, and embroidery for symbolic effect. Practical information covers dressing the performers and a costume plot, the design and creation of the make-up and hairstyles, and pattern drafts of the major garments. Photographs from live performances, as well as details of embroidery, and close-up photographs of the headdresses thoroughly portray the stunning beauty of this incomparable performance style. Presenting the brilliant colors of the elaborately embroidered silk costumes together with the intricate makeup and glittering headdresses, this volume embodies the elegance of the Beijing opera.

CHAPTER 1

THE WORLD OF TRADITIONAL JINGJU

The roots of Jingju and music-dramas reach far back into the history of China, for records of ritual dance exist as early as the Western Zhou dynasty (1100–771 BC). Dancing was used in ceremonies and festive events, and was often embellished with spoken words and musical accompaniment. The integration of these performance elements found in ancient dance continues as the essence of Chinese indigenous theatre. Succeeding dynasties saw the addition of other significant components of performance that contributed to the foundations of traditional Jingju. During the Tang dynasty (AD 618–907), considered a pinnacle of classical arts, taste, and style in Chinese history, the Pear Orchard Academy for music and drama training was formed under Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–756) (also known as Minghuang), and for this act he has long been considered one of the early patrons of theatrical performing arts. Although the focus of the Academy was to cultivate entertainers, primarily musicians, from among the women and children of the palace, the conservatory is generally acknowledged as having contributed to the development of theatre.¹ The Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the rise of nanxi (southern drama), which found popularity in the Southern Song court in Hangzhou.² The division of characters into role categories developed during this period, including the ancestors of the four main roles used in contemporary Jingju: the sheng (standard male characters), the dan (female characters), the jing (larger-than-life comic or villain characters), and the chou (smaller-than-life comic characters). A fully recognized theatre form, zaju (lit. “variety drama”), emerged during and was patronized by the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). The Mongols initially abolished the civil service exams, which by the Song era had become the main avenue to governmental positions. As a consequence, prospective candidates who were well versed in classical literature and the writing of poetry no longer had an outlet for their talents. Instead, many scholars think, these individuals turned to playwriting, thereby contributing a key aspect, the plays themselves, to complete the theatrical form, during what some consider the Golden Age of Chinese dramatic literature.

With the establishment of the Ming dynasty (1368– 1644), China was once again ruled by the ethnic Han majority. Zaju began to be written by literati and performed at court, as well as receiving popular support. With the input of literati playwrights, nanxi, the fairly crude earliest form of southern drama, developed into the more refined and elaborate chuanqi (lit. “transmit the strange”), and also won the patronage of the court. These plays were performed according to a variety of local musical systems that competed with each other. The sixteenth century saw the development of Kunqu (lit. “songs of Kunshan”). Based on a local tradition but borrowing elements from outside that tradition, Kunqu emerged as the national, classical dramatic form, patronized by the court and most literati. Credit for the development of its musical system is given to Wei Liangfu (c.1522–1573), a musician and performer. Beautiful melodies and classical language were combined with graceful movements to create the Kunqu performance style. The literary element was also a key component in Kunqu, and the plays were valued for the quality of the writing in addition to being a basis for performance. Liang Chenyu (c. 1520–1594) was the first successful Kunqu playwright, and as the form grew in popularity, scholars became more involved in playwriting than ever before. Also during the Ming dynasty, the system of painting faces, using patterns and colors to express the character, flourished, and this contributed yet another aspect of performance that has descended to contemporary Jingju.

During the Qing dynasty of Manchu rule (1644–1911), the Qianlong emperor, who reigned from 1736 to 1796, was an admirer of theatre performance. When his eightieth birthday was celebrated in 1790, performing companies from nearby provinces gathered in the capital city of Beijing to participate in the festivities and pay homage to the emperor. The best of the troupes from Anhui province enjoyed great success in the capital, so additional troupes performing in the Anhui style came to Beijing as well, where they interacted with performers from other regions, particularly Hubei and Shanxi. The combination of their talents and regional styles, along with the traditions of Kunqu, the aristocratic Ming theatre, formed the basis for a new theatre form, that of Beijing. The emerging form was called pihuang, a com bination of the names for the two principal modes of music incorporated into the new style: xipi, the rhythm from Hubei province, and erhuang, the rhythm from Anhui province. As the form developed and spread to other cities, a new name, Jingxi (capital theatre), came into use in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The strength of the new form came from absorbing the best aspects of existing forms and the melding of all that had come before. Hence, in addition to being the celebration of the emperor’s birthday, 1790 is considered by some as the birth of the theatrical form now called Jingju.

Once established in the late eighteenth century, Beijing’s own regional theatre form continued to develop and flourish. The emphasis on poetry and scholar-beauty romances in the Kunqu style was challenged with an increase in the Jingju tradition’s employment of martial and popular literature. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo yanyi) is one source often drawn upon for play material. This great epic, attributed to Luo Guanzhong, (c. 1330–1400), concerns the struggle for power from the end of the Han (c. 206 BC–AD 220) through the Three Kingdoms period (220–280). The new subject matter changed the dramatic focus to male characters and incorporated the use of acrobatics to portray the battles, further shifting the form’s emphasis from literary to performative.

Jingju reached its peak in the first half of the twentieth century, when it was enhanced by the emergence of some of China’s best actors, notably Mei Lanfang (1894–1961), a superb player of female roles. He contributed to the spreading awareness of the form by touring other countries. Though performances declined during the Japanese invasions of China, they were revitalized after the Communist revolution in 1949, and the name Jingju was devised. After mid-century, the practice of men playing women’s roles diminished, and women began to perform more frequently in Jingju. During the Cultural Revolution, Jingju was transformed into model revolutionary opera, with a repertoire limited to plays that supported the Party line, and the sumptuous costumes were replaced by Mao suits and peasant dress. Restored to its original scope in the 1980s, Jingju continues to evolve as a living form of theatre, with performances of traditional, newly written historical, and contemporary plays. Combining the heritage of a millennium of xiqu (music-drama) development and absorbing the admirable aspects from eighteenth- and nineteenth-century forms in the years since the emperor’s birthday in 1790, Jingju has become the leading form of xiqu in China.³

ROLE TYPES

Every character in a Jingju play is assigned to a role type according to the character’s important personality traits and the circumstances in the play. The four major role types continue to be sheng, dan, jing, and chou, though the descriptions of the latter two have evolved since the Song dynasty. The role types contain subdivisions for age and performance skills. In performance, each role projects an ideal through distinct techniques of movement and vocal quality, as well as specific standards of hair, makeup, and dress. However, the use of role types does not imply the characters are stereotypes. Both intelligent and foolish characters appear within the role subdivisions, and conversely a court official can be assigned to a sheng, jing, or chou role, depending on the nature of his character. The assignment of the role types is determined by what the characters in each category have in common, while also accommodating a variety of personalities.

Sheng. The sheng roles are generally the dignified and decent men, with a range of personal characteristics and statuses. Laosheng (mature men) and xiaosheng (young men) are two major subdivisions by age within the sheng roles, and wusheng (martial men) is another subdivision, for warriors. Many laosheng are scholars and statesmen, often members of the court or heads of households. Their social status may also be lower, but if so they are still intrinsically deserving of respect. Many of the plays with a laosheng in the principal role involve the laosheng remaining composed while performing difficult but noble tasks in the face of adversity. Laosheng usually wear long pi (formal robes) or mang (court robes) with water sleeves (shuixiu), white silk extensions to the cuff of the garment sleeve. Their accessories include high-topped, high-soled boots (houdi xue) and fabric headdresses. They wear skin-toned makeup, with the addition of peach color around the eyes and between the brows. Their eyes and brows are accented with black liner. Laosheng are further distinguished by a long, thin, three-part beard called a sanliu ran. Their performance skills focus on song, speech, and dance-acting (Fig. 1.1). A subcategory of laosheng is wulaosheng, older men who are general...