History and Historiography

From Ancient to Modern World

Ashu J Nair, Borah, Ashu J Nair, Borah

• Verlag: VIJ Books (India) Pty Ltd
• Jahr: 2018
• ISBN:
  9789388161039
• Auflage: 1
• Thema: History
• Thema: Historiography

History & Historiography: From Ancient to Modern World is entitled to serve as a bundle of various research articles and research papers. The book concentrates mainly on the topics which, we think, will be valuable to apprehend the various research areas deeply and more profoundly. This book also includes such topics that are mainly related to our glorious history and the development of our ideas about the past. The present volume is the first in highlighting articles and essays written by young scholars. These young scholars are more way than a historian. They have written on the topics with respect to the fields of specialization, really agreed and sent in their contributions. This collection precisely focuses precisely on Indian and European History. Although there is a vast literature available on the subject the need to put forth the mindset of young historians has been long felt. Nevertheless, it incorporates a wide range of fascinating information, which will to a greater extend appeal to the general reader as well.

Section — I

Ancient History

CHAPTER – ONE

Climatic Changes in the Pre and Proto
Historical Periods: An Emphasis on the
Natural Factors

Ashu J

This paper is not a full-fledged article in the sense it represents. But this paper represents some of the ideas pertaining to the pre and proto historical periods which precisely emphasise on the natural factors on how the climatic changes affect the human civilization. This paper gives a general introduction on how there was a steep climatic change over a decade and what was the role of human in changing the climatic condition and moreover on how these changes facilitated humans to establish its genesis.

Transition from the colder to the warmer climate had remained an issue for many centuries. It has been put forward by several environmental historians that the main factor for the increase in the temperature is due to the population and human activities. The prime objective of this research paper is to focus on changes in the climatic condition from Lower Palaeolithic of the Pleistocene Epoch to the beginning of the civilization by emphasizing that the rise in temperature was due to the natural factors rather that the human intervention.

It is clearly known that Pleistocene Epoch was the longest period of the earth and was described as the “Great Ice Age”. But today only 10% of the ice covers are left and these are found mainly in Antarctica, Greenland, Iceland and mountain ranges. I emphasize mainly on the natural factor as the main precursor of these changes. The main causes for the climatic changes and glaciations are solar isolation, carbon dioxide and tectonic movements. However, we can’t completely rule out the importance of the carbon dioxide for the creation of the glaciers. The level of carbon dioxide first resulted in warmer and then colder climates. In order to explain this phenomena, we should know that the solar radiations have medium and long wavelengths. Medium enters the earth’s atmosphere while the long is reflected back and used to get absorbed by carbon dioxide and water vapour, producing heat up and warm atmosphere. This further enhances evaporation and thus provides moisture for additional clouds and glacier-forming precipitate. If carbon dioxide is one of the factors for the creation of the glaciers than how can we blame the increase in carbon dioxide led to rise in temperature?

Nevertheless, it is evident from the prehistoric period that it was natural forces which was moulding the environment rather the human activities. For instance, living in the naturally available shelters also submit that the human during that time was looking for caves and rock shelters in order protect themselves from severe cold which was further transformed into mud and brick houses. Also hunting of animals during the Palaeolithic period suggests that the availability of plants were hindered by the snow and colder climate. We also find numerous references of fishing activity which specifies that the environment was comparatively colder and formed the staple diet of the pre and proto historical man. On the other hand, domestication of fire between 200,000 years ago also confirms that it was first used for warming themselves instead of cooking during the initial stages. Even the domestication of animals was first started before the advent of agriculture in c. 7000-6000 BC from Mesolithic, this ultimately indicate climatic condition. Domesticate of animals such as cattle and deer, suggest that the man wanted to use the by-products of the animals as a food supplements due to the lack of vegetation and even these animals were used by them as a helper while hunter and gathering. This lack of vegetation indicates the non-availability of suitable climatic conditions for germination of edible plants. Even the study of the pollens can help us in determining the sorts of animals existing at that time and about their tolerance limit of these plants give clues as to the climate. Development of food procurement was made by man, the stress may be traced to the environment. All these illustrate the colder climatic condition during the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic period.

Lower Palaeolithic period was largely covered with ice-age on contrast the Upper Palaeolithic marked less humid and climate was comparatively warmer. Climatic changes brought about the changes in fauna and flora. I strongly believe in the internal factors such as volcanic eruption, tectonic movement, solar isolation and rotation of the earth have the main precursor of these changes rather than external factors like population and pollution. Because it is very evident that during that period the population was not too much to be considered as one of the major factor for the change in climatic conditions. Looking into the technological factors the technology such as the tools and other objects made and used by the pre and proto historical man was naturally made and it is impossible to think that it has ever made a worse impact on environment. It can be said that earth was eventually transforming itself in order to maintain a balance between flora and fauna. We can’t forget that ice of Pleistocene glaciers originally came from the oceans which involved first the formation of evaporation than winds followed by snow and ice. However, isostasy (condition of balance) helps us in understanding the ice-sheet areas and other changes that had brought about.

We should note that rainfall certainly helped human society during the pre and proto historic periods in pursuing agriculture. The coming of the rainfall after the post-glacier era doesn’t take place in vacuum. It is very easy to understand this transition, rivers were formed from the melting of the ice due to the increase in the temperature by heat of the sun or any other natural factors like volcanic eruption, change in the temperature of the earth’s core, etc. and further resulting in evaporation process followed by formation of clouds and finally by rain. This can be looked upon as: -

To conclude it can be pronounced that change in the climatic condition was nurtured mainly by the internal/natural factors instead of the external/human activities. However it can be stipulated that internal factors played a major role in the transforming the environmental condition and this further facilitated the human to take advantage of such change in the climate in the form of rainfall, dense vegetation and forests. We should not always rely on the human intervention as the main agent for the climatic changes during the pre and proto historical period. The environment has a direct bearing on human efforts. Although it is true that human efforts substantially affect the natural surroundings but not to that extend during the particular period.

References

Bhattacharya, D.K. (1986). Ecology and Social Formation in Ancient History. Delhi: Sandeep Prakashan.

Eicher, Don L. and A. Lee McAlester (1980). History of the Earth. USA: Englewood Cliffs Prentice Hall.

Jain, V.K. (2009). Prehistory and Protohistory of India: An Appraisal – Palaeolithic – Non-Harappan Chalcolithic Cultures. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.

Quante, Markus (2010). Relict Species: Phylogeography and Conservation Biology. Germany: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Sharma, R.S. (2005). India’s Ancient Past. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

CHAPTER – TWO

Beginning of Iron Age in India and its
Extension

Srotoswini Borah

By the end of the Chalcolithic period, the rural settlements had come up in all parts of India. However, the major changes in the material culture were brought about with the use of iron. In archaeology generally the Iron Age is defined as the stage in the development of any human civilization in which iron was used as the main ingredient for making tools and weapons. If we look at the world context, the advent of the Iron Age in Mesopotamia is dated around 1300 B.C. The earliest evidences of iron objects can be found in the Egyptian graves of 3000 B.C. It is also important to mention here that the Anatolian (Turkish Empire) people used iron from about 3^rd millennium B.C. to 1200 B.C.

Regarding India, the earlier evidences of the Iron Age can be found in the North-western and Southern Indian regions. This is regarded as the earliest stage. The second stage expansion can be seen in the Upper Gangetic region. This stage’s development in the iron technology is popularly tagged as the mature period which expanded from 1000 to 800 B.C.E. The late phase or the last phase can be seen from about 800 to 600 B.C.E. This period is associated with the Black on Red Ware (B.R.W) culture, which is the earliest phase of the Northern Black Polished Ware (N.B.P.W) culture.

The earliest evidences of the use of iron in India can be traced both from archaeological and literary evidences. For example, if we look at the Gandhar grave region in the North-western India then much kind of iron objects can be seen discovered along with the dead bodies in the graves. Besides, the Upper Gangetic region consisted of places like Kausambi and Ahichchatra has yielded various specimens of iron objects. The iron specimens have also been recovered from the Malwa region during the later Chalcolithic period. The Megalithic burial sites of the Southern Indian region and the Deccan regions of the Chalcolithic period also yielded various iron objects.

Iron Age in India has been broadly divided into three sub-categories or sub-periods consisting of the 1^st period which expanded from 1200 to 1000 B.C.E. over the region of Pirak and Hallur of Baluchistan and Karnataka in India respectively. The 2^nd period consisted of the extension in the Gangetic region from 1000 to 800 B.C.E. The last period expanded from 800 to 600 B.C.E.

Various archaeological evidences show the expansion of iron culture in the Indian subcontinent. For example, copper objects containing iron ores have been found in the places like Lothal in Gujarat of the Harappan civilization. But it is to be mentioned here that these objects were really copper objects with some iron ores according to some scholars. In reality iron was not familiar to Harappans at all.

If we look at the Megalithic culture of Southern Indian region and Deccan, the earliest evidences of iron objects can be found in the overlapping period of Neolithic and Megalithic phases. Some scholars try to conclude that the Megalithic culture in South India was a full-fledged Iron Age culture when the great benefits of the use of iron began to be realized by the people. Most of the information regarding this Iron Age in Southern India can be gathered from the excavations of the various Megalithic burials. Almost in every Megalithic burial, iron objects have been found extending from the region of Junapani near Nagpur in Vidarbha of central India down to Adichchanallur in Tamilnadu in far South. Thirty three types of iron tools have been recovered from various regions of the Indian subcontinent ranging from celt, axe, chisel, adze, knife, fish hook, arrow, trident, etc.

Iron production was not easy as copper working since the metal obtained had to be reheated and go through several critical processes and then hammered continuously for making it useful. Moreover, it did not melt at the same temperature as that of smelting copper. Mass production of copper/bronze objects was possible through casting in a single smelt. However, iron needed extensive man-hours to forge them and make functional artifacts. Though these difficulties were present, but iron was adopted due to its strength. Tools made of it were more efficient for working in comparison to the bronze ones. Therefore, it was quickly adopted and spread in a very short span of time after its initial appearance. Ropar and Hastinapur in the Upper Gangetic valley have not yielded any iron objects due to which many scholars suggest that this phase belonged to pre-Iron Age culture though these two are PGW culture sites. But iron was found at a later stage in these two sites.

In South India, one can trace the earliest Iron Age sites. It includes places like Hallur, Karnataka and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu. There is evidence of iron at Pirak belonging to 1000 B.C. and in the graves of Gandhara of 1000 B.C. At Jakhera in Upper Ganga Valley, iron implements have been found. Atranjikhera in Uttar Pradesh has also yielded iron implements like tongs, spearheads, axes, knives, etc. In the Deccan, 1^st iron objects appear after the late Jorwe Chalcolithic phase extending from 900-800 B.C.E.

Regarding literary evidences, many works have mentioned about the existence of iron through various ways. For example, there is mention of a term ‘Ayas’ in the Rig Veda which is taken as iron by many scholars. But according to various scholars, the term ‘Ayas’ means either sharpness or strength or may be both. Besides, the various texts of the Later Vedic period, however, clearly mention about iron by the name ‘Shyam’ or ‘Krishna’ Ayas which means black or dark metal. This black metal undoubtedly identified as iron by the prominent scholars. Besides, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda clearly mention about iron which is used in the agricultural activities. Taittiriya Samhita of the Yajurveda mentions about Ayas and at least there is one reference to smiths. The Atharvaveda mentions about an amulet born of a ploughshare smitten away with a knife by a skillful smith. The other texts like the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa connects ion with peasantry. Again, the early Buddhist texts like the Sutta Nipata mentions about various objects made of iron. The term ‘Ayovikara’ in the Ashtadhyayi of Panini has been translated as iron ploughshare.

Different types of iron tools connected with different works have been identified ranging from the early to late Iron Age. These iron tools are identified as to be connected with various functions ranging from agriculture to hunting and household to building and craft tools. Agricultural tools consisting of the axes, sickle, ploughshare, hoe, spearhead, arrowhead, points, blades, daggers, swords, elephant goads, etc. were used for hunting. In household works various iron tools like knife, disc, ring, spoon, etc. were used. For building or construction purposes, rod, pin, nail, pipe, socket, chain, door hook, etc. were used. These various kinds of tool in reality show the development of iron technology in almost every nook and corner of the Indian subcontinent.

However, it is important to mention here that the iron technology in India brought a tremendous change in the socio, political and economic arenas. Regarding economy, iron brought a significance change in the agriculture. Agricultural process became advanced due to use of sophisticated iron implements which not only decreased the labour in the fields but also gave a tremendous increment in the agricultural production. Due to the advancement in the agricultural economy, surplus production began to happen and with this trade and commerce began to flourish w...