Counseling Theory

Guiding Reflective Practice

Richard D. Parsons, Naijian Zhang

• Verlag: SAGE Publications, Inc
• Jahr: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781483323060
• Auflage: 1
• Thema: Social Sciences
• Thema: Sociology

Organized around the latest CACREP standards, Counseling Theory: Guiding Reflective Practice, by Richard D. Parsons and Naijian Zhang, presents theory as an essential component to both counselor identity formation and professional practice. Drawing on the contributions of current practitioners, the text uses both classical and cutting-edge theoretical models of change as lenses for processing client information and developing case conceptualizations and intervention plans. Each chapter provides a snapshot of a particular theory/approach and the major thinkers associated with each theory as well as case illustrations and guided practice exercises to help readers internalize the content presented and apply it to their own development as counselors.

S E C T I O N II

Theories and Their Applications

C H A P T E R 4

Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

Faith Deveaux

I have spread my dreams under your feet; tread softly because you tread on my dreams.

—William Butler Yeats (1865–1939), Irish poet

If you think dreams have meaning, then you are on your way to appreciating just one of the contributions of Sigmund Freud and the theory of psychoanalysis.

What does it mean to think like a psychoanalyst? Who was Sigmund Freud? Is it important that you know who he was, and if so, why? Are Freud and psychoanalytic ideas relevant to you today? In this chapter, you will read about the person considered the primary figure in bringing about the concepts and practices on which psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy were built. In counseling, we are challenged to be reflective practitioners. In many ways, we can look at Freud’s contributions and the significance of psychoanalytic theory as the beginning of reflective practice and can view Freud himself as a reflective practitioner. As you read about the other theories in this book, you will appreciate that Freud started a movement of people who cared deeply about how to intervene to help others resolve their problems and lead satisfying and productive lives. Many of the theories to follow will have either begun with psychoanalytic roots and branched off in new and different directions or will be positions theorists have taken in opposition to this approach. The beginnings as well as the development of psychoanalytic thinking—from Freud to today—are relevant to both theory and practice in the helping professions.

Freud was constantly creating, analyzing, developing, revising, collaborating, experimenting, and thinking about his work. He wrote a tremendous amount, and in this one chapter you will be introduced to only some of the important basics of psychoanalytic theory. Think about what you are reading. Make connections to your everyday life and the people around you. Appreciate that you can build on what you read here, for you will reflect on yourself and on those with whom you work. As you gain experience, knowledge, awareness, and skills as a counselor, at least some part of you will likely relate to the theoretical foundations of psychoanalytic thinking. Your reflective practice will be better informed because of this.

After reading this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

1. Describe the basic assumptions and characteristics of psychoanalytic theory

2. Define the ego, the id, and the superego, and explain their roles in the structure of personality from a psychoanalytic perspective

3. Identify what techniques are used to promote adaptive change from a psychoanalytic perspective

4. Describe how psychoanalytic theory guides practice

5. Identify steps in a three- to six-session consultation with the intention of making a recommendation to the client for follow-up treatment

INTRODUCTION

On many basic issues regarding the theories and interventions in counseling and psychotherapy, there is little professional agreement (Nye, 1996). Counseling is a vibrant profession because people are interested in matters that concern the personal, social, academic, and career/college issues that impact an individual’s happiness and successes in life. The public wants to know that there are professionals committed and trained to assist people with their problems effectively. There is not just one approach or theory available to you, because human beings are complex, and all the research studying human emotion, growth, and development over time is also complex.

In this book, you will read about different theoretical orientations and perspectives. I advise you to appreciate all of them. You will have favorites, and you will discover that one or another theory “speaks to you.” How exciting that will be. It may be a client, a course, or a particular supervisor’s approach. As you develop perspectives based on where and with whom you are working, your theoretical knowledge will guide you. Parsons (2009) rightly called counselors’ attention to the idea that our work with clients will proceed more successfully and efficiently if we know what to look for, are aware of what we observe, and understand what we hear and see when we encounter a client. Familiarity with the psychoanalytic perspective can help.

Historical Background: A Profile of Sigmund Freud

The name most linked with the theory of psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freud. He has been called the father of psychoanalysis and “talk” therapy. He was born to a White, Jewish family on May 6, 1856. Freud and his family lived in Vienna, Austria, from the time he was 4 years old. As he grew up, Freud developed an interest in medicine and became a medical student and researcher in neurobiology, neuroanatomy, and neurophysiology. Freud also studied philosophy, natural science, hypnosis, literature, archeology, history, psychopharmacology, genetics, and chemistry (Dufresne, 2007). Because he was born into a Jewish family and did not convert to Christianity (although he considered himself an atheist), he was not permitted to assume the research position he desired at the university. When Freud was developing his theories, there were political, social, and ideological climate changes in Vienna. Today we know changes are occurring all over the world, and followers of Freud’s psychoanalytic thinking are working to promote, develop, and adapt these theories, not only in America and Europe but also in South Africa, Latin America, and China.

Freud worked with troubled patients. His training as a doctor was instrumental in helping him see that his patients’ symptoms were not caused by physical ailments. He wanted to help, but there were no guidebooks. Freud thought about his patients and how he could help them, and his ideas came from rigorous training, thoughtful work with colleagues, and close observation of patients, as well as reflections on himself. Freud was beginning to formulate his ideas and approaches at the beginning of the 20th century, and even during his lifetime his theories evolved, changed, and developed significantly.

Because he was not able to work in a university setting as he wanted, Freud treated people who suffered from nervous conditions in his own practice. He thought new theories and new methods were needed to help them. Between 1887 and 1897, the pre-psychoanalytic period, Freud was committed to research and wanted to bridge the fields of neurophysiology, neurology, and psychology as he worked to improve the lives and functioning of his patients. By 1897, psychoanalysis was developing into a therapeutic approach, by which the patient’s relationship with the therapist, labeled the “transference relationship,” was analyzed to resolve the repetition of unresolved, repressed conflicts. Freud’s theories also developed from his self-analysis, which he published in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900/1965).

In 1933, when Freud was already in his 70s, the Nazi party took control of Germany. In 1938, the Germans annexed Austria, and the Nazis murdered all Freud’s sisters. During this time, at the age of 82, Freud moved to London and escaped the Nazis. A year later, in September 1939, Freud died in London. During his life, he published many books and articles about psychoanalysis, and his approach was adopted in Europe and also America. He had high aspirations, cared about making a positive difference in people’s lives, and wanted to make a name for himself. He did, indeed, leave a legacy for counselors, psychologists, and generations of helping professionals.

Freud was a prodigious writer and thinker, and he is to be admired and respected for his desire to understand what influenced humans and how to alleviate their suffering. Scientists, researchers, scholars, teachers, and philosophers are still devoted to exploring and understanding the mind and the brain. Freud began his explorations in the 19th century, and what fascinated him fascinates us today. Thus, psychoanalysis continues to be of interest to scientists, practitioners, philosophers, and scholars in the 21st century.

Many leaders in the fields of psychology, counseling, and psychiatry have contributed to Freud’s work and built on the basic principles of psychoanalysis. As you read the following chapters, you will learn that many theories and theorists had their beginnings in psychoanalytic theory. The following list introduces you to the names of some of the other leaders in the field whose work has a psychoanalytic foundation and who expanded on Freud’s ideas. They cared deeply about their clients’ mental health and well-being and studied the psychoanalytic writings of Freud as part of their training to address the needs of those with whom they worked. In most instances, this list is a sample of those who have branched off from Freud, developing on his ideas in their work with individuals and addressing the needs of children and families from a psychoanalytic perspective. In the reference list at the end of the chapter, you can explore samples of their writings and learn more about them.

• John Bowlby

• Erik Erikson

• Anna Freud

• Carl Jung

• Otto Kernberg

• Melanie Klein

• Heinz Kohut

• Margaret Mahler

Two people who have made contributions to the field of psychoanalytic family therapy are Nathan Ackerman and Ivan Boszormenyi-Nagy.

Areas of Development

What is the place of psychoanalysis in the 21st century? A great deal of research and writing is occurring in academic settings and among practitioners of those theories that have their roots in psychoanalytic thought—including Adlerian therapy and Gestalt approaches. There are still training institutes throughout the country where practitioners are taught the psychoanalytic approach to intervention and where trainees are required to participate in their own training analyses. These institutes are not part of degree-granting institutions, hospitals, or clinics but, rather, are independent and freestanding. In the past several decades, critics of Freud’s approach have cited a lack of methodology to assess the merits of his theories (Dufresne, 2007).

Today, psychoanalysts, neuropsychologists, neurobiologists, and neuroscientists are collaborating to study the interaction of the brain and the mind, to better understand how symbolic meaning is created. In psychoanalytic thinking, the brain and the mind are on a continuum. Psychoanalysis can be explored in terms of its relation to philosophy and other modern avenues of thought, such as “feminism, critical theory, aesthetics, and the theory...